tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-44900371559177534702024-03-16T14:52:40.886-04:00Themes of Parasitology"You still don't understand what you're dealing with, do you? The perfect organism. Its structural perfection is matched only by its hostility. I admire its purity. A survivor … unclouded by conscience, remorse, or delusions of morality." <br> - Ash to Ripley (Alien, 1979)Dr. Dracehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06645476580222680810noreply@blogger.comBlogger123125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-50088159416839605962014-04-25T00:47:00.001-04:002014-04-25T00:47:49.249-04:00Spice Up Your Life<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Why We Like It Spicy</b></i></div>
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A spicy food lover? Are your taste-buds just<br /><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: start;"><a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/judepics/409841087/">[5]</a></span></td></tr>
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attracted to
the flavor or is it something else? Paul W. Sherman and his colleagues have
taken an evolutionary approach to the reasoning behind various groups’ love for
spices. To clarify, “spice” is a culinary term that refers to a variety of
dried shrubs, vines, trees, aromatic lichens, roots, flowers, seeds, and
herbaceous plant roots [1].
Each spice contains a variety of “secondary compounds” or phytochemicals
which have evolved in plants to aid in protection against insects and other
life forms that may prey on the plant [1]. Sherman’s theory states
that depending on their climate, humans have evolutionary acquired the desire
for spices not only for their flavor, but for their antimicrobial activity and ability
to combat food-borne illnesses. Stemming from this hypothesis are multiple
predictions: 1) spices should exhibit potent
antimicrobial properties 2) geographic regions with the warmest climates should
show the greatest use of spices, as these regions are threatened more by food spoilage
and 3) recipes from hot climates should impede a larger proportion of bacteria
than recipes from cold climates [1].<br />
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<i><b>What’s the big deal? Antimicrobial properties!</b></i><o:p></o:p></div>
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Thirty
spices were tested and all were found to kill or inhibit at least 25% of the
different bacteria they were tested on, while half of the spices were found to
kill or inhibit at least 75% of the bacteria [1]. The most potent
spices revealed to be garlic, onion, allspice, and oregano as they inhibited
or exterminated every bacterial species tested [1]. This is a comforting statistic
as it is more likely for bacteria to be the cause of a food-borne illness outbreak
than yeast or fungi and the tested bacteria are found worldwide [1]. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: start;"><a href="http://greyduckgarlic.com/Garlic_Kills_Food_Poisoning_Bacteria.html">[7]</a></span></td></tr>
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Don’t believe in the power of spices yet?
Perhaps the San people will help change your mind. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqIM6QB3wt4">[6]</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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The
San Bushmen are a group of nomadic hunters/gatherers in the Kalahri desert in
southern Africa whose diet consists of only spicy foods (mainly plants), yet exhibit great health [2].<o:p></o:p></div>
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So, should Icelandic people be rushing to the local
supermarket and gathering spices? No, they need not worry. Sherman states
there’s no need for them to use spices as a meat left outside overnight would
freeze, slowing the accumulation of bacteria [3].<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i><b>Looking All Over the World </b></i><o:p></o:p></div>
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Sherman
and Billings looked at “traditional” meat-based recipes worldwide and tabulated
what countries used what amount of spices per recipe in order to determine if
there was a pattern in spice use [1]. These results were hard to analyze. In
another approach, they focused on the annual temperature of geographic regions.
Their assumption was that a country’s annual temperature should be proportional
to its meal spoilage rate. Thus, their prediction was countries with higher
annual temperatures should use more spices in their recipes. Their prediction
proved to be true. Results of countries showed as the average annual
temperature increased, the number of spices used significantly increased,
especially in spices that are highly effective in inhibiting bacterial species [1].
<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i><b>Variation in Food Poisoning Rates</b></i><o:p></o:p></div>
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In
their research, Sherman and Billings compared the number of food-borne illness
cases between Korea (whose recipes traditionally contain spices) and Japan
(whose recipes traditionally don’t contain spices). Results showed between 1971
and 1990, food poisoning affected 29.2 out of every 100,000 Japanese people and
3.0 people out of every 100,000 Koreans [1]. Although there
are additional factors to consider as to the reasoning behind the statistic,
this result largely supports the theory that spices reduce food-borne illnesses. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<i><b>Let's Cover All Bases</b></i><br /><div class="MsoNormal">
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Sherman and Billings also explored other possible explanations
for regional spice use. This included the ability of spices to hide a putrid
flavor or odor. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://behaviouristatplay.tumblr.com/post/34426338204/is-she-smelling-her-food-because-i-smell-my-food">[9]</a></td></tr>
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But if this was the case, then evolution would lean towards us eating
foods infested with disease-causing microorganisms [4]. Thus, the first
alternative explanation was debunked. The other alternative explanation was
spices have uses besides fighting microbes, such as aiding in digesting,
regulating metabolism and delaying diabetes and heart disease [1]. Although
some spices exhibit these beneficial effects, a good amount does not, so this
cannot be the primary explanation behind regional variance in spice use [1].<br />
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<i>Let's Wrap it Up</i></div>
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With all of this evidence, it is difficult to ignore the impact of spices, as well as Sherman's reasoning behind regional variation of spice use. So think twice before you eat a meal with little to no spice. If you’re not
going to do it for your taste buds, at least do it for your intestinal tract. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJBZ5_3UnQQPYFjPaECemf4PNV9Q4jmtm1v298QFWfhXLiFw8o1LdhszRGUjd5tXzUD1bKRO1hts4xM7snl5ayA1H3DSD81MVemlHU9zVznAUKrxXcKorYVY5EtRIVptKjZ_8_wFhX_Z0/s1600/spicy+man.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJBZ5_3UnQQPYFjPaECemf4PNV9Q4jmtm1v298QFWfhXLiFw8o1LdhszRGUjd5tXzUD1bKRO1hts4xM7snl5ayA1H3DSD81MVemlHU9zVznAUKrxXcKorYVY5EtRIVptKjZ_8_wFhX_Z0/s1600/spicy+man.jpg" height="131" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://metronews.ca/news/london/738508/london-health-unit-busts-hot-weather-myths/">[8]</a></td></tr>
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<o:p></o:p><br />
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References</div>
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<span style="color: blue;">1. <a href="http://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/BioNB427/READINGS/ShermanBilling1999.pdf">http://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/BioNB427/READINGS/ShermanBilling1999.pdf</a></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;">2. <a href="http://www.prweb.com/releases/2009spices/6kalahari-san/prweb2571784.htm">http://www.prweb.com/releases/2009spices/6kalahari-san/prweb2571784.htm</a></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;">3. <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1111_051111_spicy_medicine_2.html">http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1111_051111_spicy_medicine_2.html</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: blue;">4. Zuk, M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and
the Parasites That Make Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harcourt, 2007. pp 211-212.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: blue;">5.<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/judepics/409841087/"> https://www.flickr.com/photos/judepics/409841087/</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: blue;">6. <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqIM6QB3wt4">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqIM6QB3wt4</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: blue;">7. <a href="http://greyduckgarlic.com/Garlic_Kills_Food_Poisoning_Bacteria.html">http://greyduckgarlic.com/Garlic_Kills_Food_Poisoning_Bacteria.html</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8. <a href="http://metronews.ca/news/london/738508/london-health-unit-busts-hot-weather-myths/">http://metronews.ca/news/london/738508/london-health-unit-busts-hot-weather-myths/</a></div>
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9. <a href="http://behaviouristatplay.tumblr.com/post/34426338204/is-she-smelling-her-food-because-i-smell-my-food">http://behaviouristatplay.tumblr.com/post/34426338204/is-she-smelling-her-food-because-i-smell-my-food</a></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10275757406004379160noreply@blogger.com33tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-25751750278091218172014-04-19T15:03:00.004-04:002014-04-19T15:03:58.989-04:00Intermediate Host: The Delivery Boy of the Parasitic World<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<b><u>Why use an intermediate host?</u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Parasites have often been known to take a skewed path to their ideal host. What is the point of an intermediate host? What makes the longer path the better one? It seems more time and energy consuming, and overall inefficient. Well, sometimes it is. But more often than not, an intermediate host is beneficial, even necessary, to a parasite’s life cycle. Intermediate hosts can increase the probability of infection the definitive host[1], provide transport to the definitive host, or even supply nutrients for the parasite’s development until a suitable host comes along[2]. </span></div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-566b5228-7b1d-1b2a-6d1a-4b7e1bab29b1"><br /><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></span>
<b><u>Types of Transmission</u></b><br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Before we talk about all the different instances in which using an intermediate/ host is helpful to a parasite, it’s important to know that there are 2 kinds of transport through a host: passive and active. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Passive transmission</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is essentially the host’s accidental ingestion/inhalation/etc of an infective source. For example, Dracunculiasis, or more commonly referred to as Guinea Worm Disease, is the result of passive transport. The nematode responsible for the disease, Dracunculus medinensis, is ingested by a copepod in its L1 stage. The parasite develops into the L3 phase while in the copepod, which can be swallowed by a human (the definitive host) when clean water is unavailable[3]. This parasite did not manipulate its host’s behavior in attempt to reach another host, but rather just let things happen as they did.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Active transmission</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, on the other hand, is displayed when a parasite manipulates the paratenic host’s behavior or deliberately performs some kind of action to open the encounter filter and increase the probability of reaching its definitive host. The human Bot Fly, or Dermatobia hominis, is a good example of active transport. The fly lays its eggs on the abdomen of a mosquito (the intermediate host) that will be stimulated and released when the mosquito comes in contact, or takes a bloodmeal from, a human [4].</span></div>
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Compilation of Boy Fly removals. [8]</div>
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<b><u>Infective vs. Infestive</u></b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3uReHt2NJ-5VCjvCy7dTdDwo7pIDmmcvht7idAHVHU3S5SZMmY2v2ojJ1HgJovCebJOwFl6yUyCs_0z2w6QJL54DbJKWvuVeV3TjgeUHxcxnAIV8mAQYHYTIMK-rwF325hcuEuLq9InE/s1600/800px-Trichinella_life_cycle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3uReHt2NJ-5VCjvCy7dTdDwo7pIDmmcvht7idAHVHU3S5SZMmY2v2ojJ1HgJovCebJOwFl6yUyCs_0z2w6QJL54DbJKWvuVeV3TjgeUHxcxnAIV8mAQYHYTIMK-rwF325hcuEuLq9InE/s1600/800px-Trichinella_life_cycle.jpg" height="225" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Trichinella's Life Cycle [6]</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Both passive and active transmission can be divided further into categories; active transmission, for example, can be attained by either an infected source or an infested source. An infested source essentially implies that the parasite is free-living, while infective sources utilize a living organism as an intermediate host [4]. Pigs and cows are both infective sources/intermediate hosts for certain </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Trichinella</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> species. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. spiralis</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">is the most common, and therefore most devastating, species in the </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Trichinella </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">family. The </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. spiralis</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> life cycle is direct, meaning that it can be completed within a single host, and therefore does not </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">need</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> an intermediate host. However, there often are multiple hosts that </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. spiralis</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> will go through during its life. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. spiralis</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> larvae encase themselves in cysts inside the muscle of its current host (usually a pig), which affects the mobility of the infected muscle. If the host’s muscles are rigid and immobile, it will be more likely to get caught, and therefore eaten, which will pass the nematode onto another host. The parasite increases its chances of continuing its life cycle by shortening that of its current host.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span>
<b><u>Mind Control of Mice?</u></b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9g1f5XVZT1PTgoCt7f4ugYKx1T5-FgXy4JcxOWsqBFrD7nbEnTOcZRokWkBg-cT_FA0H0PG2vWTtUE1hIp9h-k6aFOPQ3zZxzJv5It4Ybqq8LbEZMODOAvQOF0VFJngTuyZ7L1VDu3dI/s1600/parasite+comic.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9g1f5XVZT1PTgoCt7f4ugYKx1T5-FgXy4JcxOWsqBFrD7nbEnTOcZRokWkBg-cT_FA0H0PG2vWTtUE1hIp9h-k6aFOPQ3zZxzJv5It4Ybqq8LbEZMODOAvQOF0VFJngTuyZ7L1VDu3dI/s1600/parasite+comic.png" height="195" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Several parasites exhibit mind control<br />
over their hosts.[7]</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Another example of a parasite using an intermediate host to increase its chances of ingestion is </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Toxoplasma gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> can only reproduce in cats, but it is often found in rats and other rodents. Why on earth would a parasite be found in both rodents and cats? Because the protozoa controls its host’s (the rodent) mind to decrease fear of cats. Usually, when a rodent/rat smells cat urine, it turns and runs as fast as it can. But when infected with </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, the rodent is intrigued by the smell, and it sticks around to find the source of the smell leading to its imminent consumption[5]. The effects of </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> on human brains is currently being studied, and so far it looks like humans are also susceptible to parasitic mind control. Apparently, humans infected with </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> are more likely to take on dangerous tasks and get into car accidents. Science North talks about </span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">T. gondii</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> more in the video below. </span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="270" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/Ri1-Y0rocSA" width="480"></iframe><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
More info about <i>T. gondii</i>. [9]</div>
<br />
<br />
Sources:<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">1. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Art of Being A Parasite</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, by Claude Combes</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">2. </span><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=eegdgaR81k0C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=benefits+of+intermediate+host&source=bl&ots=yzlv3E-1zi&sig=nQpwIKisK1zhbC5S-CfJdGow1k0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6d9RU-y8Eu7KsQTH_oDYCA&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=benefits%20of%20intermediate%20host&f=false" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://books.google.com/books?id=eegdgaR81k0C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&dq=benefits+of+intermediate+host&source=bl&ots=yzlv3E-1zi&sig=nQpwIKisK1zhbC5S-CfJdGow1k0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6d9RU-y8Eu7KsQTH_oDYCA&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=benefits%20of%20intermediate%20host&f=false</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">3. </span><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">4. </span><a href="http://health.usf.edu/publichealth/gh/parasitology/sem/sourcesandmodes.htm" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://health.usf.edu/publichealth/gh/parasitology/sem/sourcesandmodes.htm</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">5. </span><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/biology.html" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/biology.html</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">6. </span><a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trichinella_life_cycle.jpg" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trichinella_life_cycle.jpg</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">7. </span><a href="http://www.pidjin.net/category/fredo-pidjin/page/24/" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">http://www.pidjin.net/category/fredo-pidjin/page/24/</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">8. </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDoB7uY7TFc" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDoB7uY7TFc</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></div>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-566b5228-7b5c-a58a-2a51-ae7ce28cc878"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">9. </span><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri1-Y0rocSA" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ri1-Y0rocSA</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span><br />
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14529136305320443169noreply@blogger.com34tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-85129488279069137662014-04-16T00:03:00.000-04:002014-04-16T00:08:40.683-04:00Mudpies As A Defense?<i>A little background for you . . . </i>
<br>
Alright, we are no longer young children out here making mudpies and eating dirt. However, what if eating small amounts of dirt could lessen the impacts of side effects from parasites and make us healthier against them? So what if we ingest a few parasites in the process, as Zuk says: “remember, the idea that we- or any other organism- should be completely parasite-free is a modern invention, not a natural state of affairs.”[1] The concept of geophagy, or eating dirt or clay like materials, has been around for centuries amongst animals and humans alike. Research has shown both positive and negative effects on the body and on the protection from parasites from eating small amounts of dirt consistently. However, we must question, why dirt?
<br>
<br>
<i>Why dirt? </i>
<br>
<a href="http://spectregroup.wordpress.com/2008/04/21/haitians-eating-mud/">[6]</a><a href="http://spectregroup.wordpress.com/2008/04/21/haitians-eating-mud/"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://blackliberal.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/922e548b-3d8b-4f36-a873-80035bac0f5a.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://blackliberal.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/922e548b-3d8b-4f36-a873-80035bac0f5a.jpg?w=300&h=202" /> </a></div></a>When first thinking about dirt, soil, or Georgia red clay for instance, one does not typically think that it would be a desired food. However, dirt with high amounts of clay contain high amounts of minerals such as calcium. Studies have shown that geophagy is a common practice among children and pregnant women in rural areas where proper healthcare and nutrition are lacking.[2] The origins of this practice date back to various tribes and cultural practices across the world on all continents from centuries ago. Some site homesickness, or desire to regain lost nutrients as a cause for eating dirt. Others often use it for medicinal purposes since it has anti-diarrheal properties. Pregnant women often use it as a home remedy for morning sickness.[4] A common practice is for the soil to be mixed with other things and then baked. It is common to find baked soil in local rural stores. Some cultures use dirt and clay as food when they do not have enough, although the nutritional value is very low.
<br>
<br>
<i>So is this safe?</i>
<br>
Not exactly, with eating dirt many risks arise. There are many STH’s (soil transmitted helminthes) that can live dormant in soil for years such as roundworm eggs. Additionally, most STH eggs are passed through human feces. In rural areas without proper plumbing and running water, defecation takes place in the dirt. Infected individuals would then be passing the eggs through the stool into the dirt, which over time could wash away, however still leaving the eggs behind. When the dirt is collected for consumption, albeit small amounts, the eggs are also collected and can be transferred once eaten.
<br>
<iframe width="500" height="282" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/vATmFHhLKHE" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vATmFHhLKHE">[7]</a>
<br>
<br>
<i>So the benefits are?</i>
<br>
For centuries pregnant women have eaten soil as a way to retrieve necessary nutrients that is shared with the fetus during pregnancy. Some cultures have been known to use certain types of soil in medicine. Keep in mind, were not talking the average potting soil you can find in the stores. We are talking about soil high in clay levels. Clay has been known to have adsorbing characteristics that help in removing toxins from the body. [3] For centuries, those without access to proper healthcare or those who could not afford healthcare turned to clays and soils as a way to help detox their bodies and keep them safe. Colloidal clays, such as those used for medicinal purposes, have been found to have anti-diarhheal properties. [3] <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.mnn.com/sites/default/files/user-1071/clay2_530.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgExFPtIuSqLFhM0wesTLDKu9MEFexW_ucGud3PaWE74H35kj0ONMXv2Z4iys29GzNc9LmncYyeRkBfHi5ePQQi14rSoRw2ZGtJG6LEph7L-0tQJsW5xNwnC7OZIKiLUzavcPT_k6FZ4_z-/s200/clay2_530.jpg" width="315" />[8]</a></div>This is where we see the benefits for parasites. As we have learned in class, a common side effect of any parasitic infection is diarrhea. Therefore, the side effects are reduced. As mentioned above by Zuk, humans are expected to have a few parasites. Having low amounts of parasites allows our innate immunity to build a response to them. In that case, the parasite load is not enough to cause a full-blown infection, but enough for our body to realize that they are a toxin and must be protected against.
<br>
<br>
<i>Still not convinced?</i>
<br>
We all have probably eaten dirt at one point in our life, whether it be through playing outside, or having vegetables and fruits that were not completely clean. With that being said, I am not saying go outside and eat a handful of dirt. Not exactly a good idea, but small amounts every now and then are not completely bad. The amount of parasites you may get by eating small amounts of dirt as children, or as adults are typically not enough to cause infection, unless dirt is eaten daily.
<br>
<br>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://waxturds.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/1Dec2009_geophagy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://waxturds.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/1Dec2009_geophagy.jpg" width="580" /></a></div> <a href="http://waxturds.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/1Dec2009_geophagy.jpg"><a href="http://waxturds.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/1Dec2009_geophagy.jpg">[5]</a></a>
<br>
1. Zuk, M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and the Parasites That Make Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harcourt, 2007. Pp 207-211.<br>
2. Peter, A. Human Geophagy: a review of its distribution, causes and implications. In: Catherine, H., Skinner, W., Berger, A. R. geology and Health: closing the gap. Oxford University press, USA. 2003. ISBN 0-19-516204-8. <br>
3. Sing, D.; Sing, C.F. Impact of Direct Soil Exposures from Airborne Dust and Geophagy on Human Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2010, 7, pp 1205-1223.<br>
4. Elom, M.; Alo, M.; Ugah, U.; Ibiam, G. Intestinal Helminthes Associated with Geophagy in Pregnancy in Afikpo North Ebonyi State. World Journal of Medicine and Medical Science. 2013, 1, pp 92-97.<br>
5. http://waxturds.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/1Dec2009_geophagy.jpg<br>
6. http://spectregroup.wordpress.com/2008/04/21/haitians-eating-mud/<br>
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vATmFHhLKHE<br>
8. http://www.mnn.com/sites/default/files/user-1071/clay2_530.jpg<br>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08678415896633273246noreply@blogger.com22tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-32783809922857934012014-04-14T00:09:00.000-04:002014-04-14T00:09:07.127-04:00Ornaments and Opportunity<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Age of Acne<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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I’m sure we all remember those awkward middle school days of
acne and bed head. You walked around school avoiding bullies, eyeing the crush
of your dreams and trying for the life of you to figure out some way to talk to
him or her without making yourself look more inept than you may have already
felt . (If you’ve never experienced this, consider yourself a step above the
normal human race.) However, I’m even more certain that we’re all grateful those
middle school days are long behind us, with only a hidden yearbook picture as a
dreaded reminder. </div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4cjqv8jrPBI/U0taC3NC46I/AAAAAAAAAGI/X1ByZU0mrPU/s1600/cartoon-acne.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-4cjqv8jrPBI/U0taC3NC46I/AAAAAAAAAGI/X1ByZU0mrPU/s1600/cartoon-acne.jpg" height="266" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">http://ineedashouldertocryon.wordpress.com/category/personal/</span></div>
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Imagine if you will though, that those acne spots and
uncontrolled hair were all that mattered in your future for finding that
special someone. And even now, whatever blemishes you may or may not have, will
signify to a future mate the compatibility and long life you may (or may not) be
able to have. Such a terrifying concept is, fortunately for us, just a dream world for the human race as few people hold an unsightly stage of
adolescents, or an unfortunate week of pimples, against someone they could see
as a potential mate. </div>
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The animal world, on the other hand, is not so forgiving.
Often features that animals consider attractive, such as a jungle foul’s cock
comb or the yellow of a gold finch’s feathers, make all the difference in the
world in being forever alone or happily mated in the animal kingdom. While many
people struggling with acne are trying all sorts of treatments from ProActiv to
home remedies, animals must deal with treatments of their own in order to
maintain attractiveness whether they are conscious of this fact or not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Take Care of those
Carotenoids<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Male partridges are prized by their female counterparts for
their red beaks and red accents around their eyes<sup>1</sup><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b>Such attractive feature can be
attributed to carotenoids.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These pigments
can act to either brighten an animal’s coloration or increase its immune
response<sup>5</sup>. Although carotenoids are highly valuable for their
attracting tendencies, they can only be found in food and cannot be self made.
Therefore, the allocation of carotenoids is very important in being able to
attract a mate with one’s bright and bold ornamentation.</div>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CwrWoTHknM4/U0ta0mwzACI/AAAAAAAAAGQ/hCJAUDO6lsk/s1600/carotenoid-fruits.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CwrWoTHknM4/U0ta0mwzACI/AAAAAAAAAGQ/hCJAUDO6lsk/s1600/carotenoid-fruits.jpg" height="197" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">http://www.carotenoidsociety.org</span></div>
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The Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis explains that these vibrant
ornaments are an indication of an individual’s health <sup>4</sup>. Females
look for those males with big bold secondary sex characteristics because they
can indicate his parasite load and overall genetic vigor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As an individual’s parasite load
increases, his health decreases and, subsequently, so does the attractiveness
of his secondary sex characteristics<sup>4</sup>. </div>
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Although testosterone is, by itself an immunosuppressant, it
does act to increase an individual’s dietary carotenoid uptake<sup>1,2 </sup>.
As testosterone increases so does the uptake of dietary carotenoids which can
either be used to fight free radicals in the blood stream in an anti-oxidant
capacity, which increases the cell-mediated immune response, or as pigmentation
to make ornaments flashier and brighter. The more carotenoids used in an immune
response to build T-cells, the less there will be for pigmentation of ornaments<sup>3</sup>.</div>
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A relatively recent study was performed on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Alectoris rufa</i>, also known as the
red-legged partridge,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>in which scientists infected
the birds with an intestinal parasite, coccidian<sup> </sup>and then tested the
birds for their immune response and the effect that response had on secondary
sex characteristics<sup>2</sup>. The study found that males with a redder beak
and eye rings also had less parasites and higher carotenoid levels. This
indicates that while testosterone provides information to potential mates about
long-term health and potentially resistant genes passed to offspring,
carotenoid levels indicate the individual’s current health and virility. </div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">http://www.english-country-garden.com/birds/red-legged-partridge.htm</span></div>
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In summary, testosterone is a hormone that starts functioning
at the onset of puberty to increase size and structure of prominent secondary sex
characteristics. If an individual is infected by parasites from the beginning,
and has nonresistant genes to such parasitic attacks, then that individual's
ornamentation will be lacking in form and structure. However if an individual
can afford high testosterone levels and attractive ornamentation he must have good
genes. Furthermore, if an individual has attractive ornamentation that is also
bright in coloration, then he must have an ample supply of carotenoids to
spare. </div>
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It's hard to cheat in the animal world. No amount of plumage serum or beak brightener can help turn an awkward pubescent partridge into a strapping specimen to mate with. It either has it or it hasn't. I'm grateful that I can safely say no braces and acne stage can be held against anyone in the big scheme of things. At least…I hope not.</div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">http://www.dxpnet.com/opinion/pisces/Hooked-yourself-a-fish-3895146.asp</span></div>
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References</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">1)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Blas,
J., L. Perez-Rodriguez, G. R. Bortolotti, J. Vinuela, and T. A. Marchant.
"Testosterone Increases Bioavailability of Carotenoids: Insights into the
Honesty of Sexual Signaling." Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 103.49 (2006): 18633-8637.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">2) Mougeot,
Francois, Lorenzo Perez-Rodriguez, Nuria Sumozas, and Julien Terraube.
"Parasites, Condition, Immune Responsiveness and Carotenoid-based
Ornamentation in Male Red-legged Partridge Alectoris Rufa." Journal of
Avian Biology 40 (2009): 67-74.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">3)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Peters,
Anne. "Testosterone and Carotenoids: An Integrated View of Trade-offs
between Immunity and Sexual Signalling." BioEssays 29.5 (2007): 427-30.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">4)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Shykoff,
Jacqui A., and Alex Widmer. "Parasites and Carotenoid-based Signal
Intensity: How General Should the Relationship Be?" Naturwissenschaften
83.3 (1996): 113-21.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">5)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">Zuk,
M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and the Parasites That Make
Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harcourt, 2007. pp 180-206.</span></div>
Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-61410759999577094702014-04-06T21:27:00.001-04:002014-04-06T21:41:15.245-04:00Fighting Water Parasites <h3>
What’s up with water anyways?</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW84na__egOF0bnoXsLIYeWLHbg8bSKbmKInQUGkblEoYEUnInNyNXlXl3SAe4u_QWtP6MAYXj1rnFna7AbHnFvlg6nMmxPy78OHFxennO8-3RorjBQ6482D4_j6fn5nvzcsD7DvOori5V/s1600/cryptosporidium_lifecycle.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW84na__egOF0bnoXsLIYeWLHbg8bSKbmKInQUGkblEoYEUnInNyNXlXl3SAe4u_QWtP6MAYXj1rnFna7AbHnFvlg6nMmxPy78OHFxennO8-3RorjBQ6482D4_j6fn5nvzcsD7DvOori5V/s1600/cryptosporidium_lifecycle.gif" height="320" width="246" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="about:invalid#zClosurez" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">Life Cycle of Cryptosporidiosis</span></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The CDC reported an outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis in Sweden in 2010. The disease is caused by a parasite known as Cryptosporidium hominis, and, like most of the other water born parasites, causes chronic intestinal disease. The diseases caused by these parasites are characterized mainly by diarrhea, but can be accompanied by other symptoms including stomach pains (<a href="http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/4/pdfs/12-1415.pdf%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">1</span></a>). Water borne parasites that cause intestinal diseases are usually transmitted through the fecal oral route. The parasites have two forms: cysts and trophozoites, with the cysts being the infectious particles located in the fecal matter. The outbreak in Sweden can be traced back to fecal contamination, which was determined by tests that yielded abnormally high levels of E. Coli in the raw water supply (<a href="http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/4/pdfs/12-1415.pdf%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">1</span></a>). The usual microbial barriers of ozonation, a process that destroys microorganism through the infusion of ozone (<a href="http://www.ntmwd.com/ozonation.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">6</span></a>), and chlormination, a process in which ammonia is added to drinking water that already has chlorine added to disinfect (<a href="http://www.amwater.com/ilaw/water-quality-&-stewardship/chloramination-faq.html#q1%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">7</span></a>), both proved infective in this case due to the resistance of the cysts (<a href="about:invalid#zClosurez" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">5</span></a>). The Swedish added UV water disinfecting systems to help clean the water and prevent another outbreak in the future. It seems that in industrial nations it is more practical to try and prevent the limited contamination that could occur but the costs to install systems to monitor for the cysts seems impractical (<a href="http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/4/pdfs/12-1415.pdf%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">1</span></a>).<br />
<br />
<h3>
Avoiding Parasites in First World Areas </h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-S2vJ96vQXD61tfvP9EngtpJD6vhcjao9gOPeBVV-e8_9iJXXo2VKGbo-B_d97_tQJbi6FNkoYNZiojOQm3c-Rve4gCgrcQUyBFnZ45gxTwetZx6jMgtRgPjtC7HyDnrSHNqDuJ-hnbd8/s1600/gltnrGMwxHUtHpp-556x313-noPad.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-S2vJ96vQXD61tfvP9EngtpJD6vhcjao9gOPeBVV-e8_9iJXXo2VKGbo-B_d97_tQJbi6FNkoYNZiojOQm3c-Rve4gCgrcQUyBFnZ45gxTwetZx6jMgtRgPjtC7HyDnrSHNqDuJ-hnbd8/s1600/gltnrGMwxHUtHpp-556x313-noPad.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><a href="http://d22r54gnmuhwmk.cloudfront.net/photos/1/tn/rg/gltnrGMwxHUtHpp-556x313-noPad.jpg%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">Don't Do It!</span></a> </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
There are a few simple tips provided by the CDC to help prevent the prevalence parasites as well as to prevent infection. The first is do not use water that you are swimming in as a restroom because most of the water borne parasites can be transmitted in this manner. Next, do not swallow or ingest the water that you are swimming in, just in case someone could not quite make it to the restroom. The final tip is to use nose plugs when entering water that might be contaminated just to help further prevent infection (<a href="http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/protection/steps-healthy-swimming.html%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">2</span></a>).<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>
</h3>
<h3>
Third World Problems</h3>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglv7LJBV-kzw4csCXSURHgngug7r33xvvaZrvEfBRLfU8ODs34w1wPwZQmdpNXr3XeGSpTFMZtUsnVIYeP3lIXI2Qnivqm54aOHo4KC7mOcQbK71-NG43UOlmd79Q99z6TBP7kMlTRmmid/s1600/children-dirty-water_jpg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglv7LJBV-kzw4csCXSURHgngug7r33xvvaZrvEfBRLfU8ODs34w1wPwZQmdpNXr3XeGSpTFMZtUsnVIYeP3lIXI2Qnivqm54aOHo4KC7mOcQbK71-NG43UOlmd79Q99z6TBP7kMlTRmmid/s1600/children-dirty-water_jpg.jpg" height="219" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://articles.waterdesalinationplants.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/children-dirty-water_jpg.jpeg%20" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">Children getting water </span></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
While such contaminations can occur in industrialized nations that have access to clean water most of the time it is the nations that do not have clean water that have a higher prevalence of infection by these parasites. This becomes especially hazardous for children, elderly, and other immune compromised individuals, who suffer from dehydration and even death caused by diarrhea. With out proper plumbing and water treatment facilities it is extremely difficult to reduce the fecal-oral contamination that promotes the spread of these diseases. Efforts are being made to find ways to inexpensively purify the water in these nations. Two ways that have been uniformly promoted are the use of Aquatabs, or the use filters to help rid the water of the disease causing cysts, not just for the residence of theses nations but also for those who visit them (<a href="http://globalhydration.com/resources/waterbone-disease" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">3</span></a>). Aquatabs are water purification tablets, which have specific tablet requirements based on the volume of water to ensure that the water is clean. The tablets work by using the ingredient Dichloroisocyanurate, and recommend that you mix thoroughly and then wait thirty minutes before drinking the water. Also, they advise that the water be filtered first if the water is opaque or cloudy (<a href="http://www.aquatabs.com%20/" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">4</span></a>).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>
UNICEF</h3>
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/vseXyRmfSSk?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe>As we all know UNICEF is an organization that works in several ways to aid nations in need. One of their latest initiatives is to try and provide clean drinking water to children that are in need, as children are extremely susceptible to water borne parasites (<a href="http://tap.unicefusa.org%20/" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">11</span></a>). Not to mention the consequences of them getting sick put them behind in school and the problems seem to cascade from there. The new initiative is called TAP. Essentially TAP is a challenge to those of us who are fortunate enough to have cell phones to restrain from using them for the betterment of children in need. For every 10 minutes a person goes with out using his/her phone a day of drinking water is provided for a child in need. To take the challenge just access UNICEFTAPPROJECT.ORG from your cell phone and stay off of it (<a href="http://tap.unicefusa.org%20/" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">11</span></a>)!Please enjoy the videos that show some of the other efforts that UNICEEF has made to provide clean drinking water for nations that have the highest incidence on intestinal disease.
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/QGpyD1maXqc?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<h3>
Conclusion </h3>
While theses intestinal parasites and the diseases they cause may not seem like that big of a deal the truth is they are. Diarrhea is still one of the leading causes of death in the world and can keep children that desperately need an education out of school for weeks. Even if you don’t care about the children or people in other places you are not as safe as you think. Many of these parasitic cysts are resistant the chemicals currently used in water treatment plants, and are not filtered out by the filters used, which mean an outbreak could happen in your town or city. The more we work to help decrease the incidence of these diseases around the world the safer everyone else will be. All it takes is one fecal-oral contamination to start an outbreak.<br />
<br />
References<br />
1. http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/20/4/pdfs/12-1415.pdf<br />
2. http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/protection/steps-healthy-swimming.html<br />
3. http://globalhydration.com/resources/waterbone-disease<br />
4. http://www.aquatabs.com<br />
5. http://water.epa.gov/learn/kids/drinkingwater/disinfection.cfm<br />
6. http://www.ntmwd.com/ozonation.html<br />
7. http://www.amwater.com/ilaw/water-quality-&-stewardship/chloramination-faq.html#q1<br />
8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtLHcd3fDTk<br />
9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGpyD1maXqc<br />
10. http://tap.unicefusa.org<br />
11. http://d22r54gnmuhwmk.cloudfront.net/photos/1/tn/rg/gltnrGMwxHUtHpp-556x313-noPad.jpg
12. http://articles.waterdesalinationplants.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/children-dirty-water_jpg.jpeg<br />
13. http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/images/crypto/cryptosporidium_lifecycle.gifAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04318499616152034493noreply@blogger.com81tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-85136606733525993452014-04-04T19:47:00.002-04:002014-04-04T19:51:49.862-04:00<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><u>This Ain't A Scene, It's An Evo-Lutionary Arms Race </u></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZZveLhrpWf03LlRBA4zDi6KPlw3yfOtME6UMCo66gte5BFMwGViXVpKOf48Tx6E1TxRSoZu5aga5V_M4TNebxYK3MaBQKNJlpvuluMmB-shPzT1iwHvFUU9y4EgAXXhdTXf2wdRTslq8/s1600/cold.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZZveLhrpWf03LlRBA4zDi6KPlw3yfOtME6UMCo66gte5BFMwGViXVpKOf48Tx6E1TxRSoZu5aga5V_M4TNebxYK3MaBQKNJlpvuluMmB-shPzT1iwHvFUU9y4EgAXXhdTXf2wdRTslq8/s1600/cold.jpg" height="320" width="221" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Cold War Heats Up<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#1" name="top1"><sup>1</sup></a>
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It's 1947 in post World War 2 Germany; Russia tightens its
grip upon Berlin and blockades its former Allies from East Berlin.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#2" name="top2"><sup>2</sup></a>
Tension
rises between the Russians and allies. America announces the Marshall
Plan, offering support to a recovering Europe, starting with
reviving the industries of Germany. Stalin responds by extending the
reach of his power by creating the Eastern Bloc, a coalition of communist
states in Europe that was led by the USSR, to prevent America from buying
influence in Europe.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#3" name="top3"><sup>3</sup></a>
The Cold War Begins; America is pitted against their former ally, the
USSR, in a dash for power. With expanding the missile gaps, a race for space,
and a number of heated stand-offs, the arms race of the Cold War was in full
effect.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#4" name="top4"><sup>4</sup></a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was one of the biggest
stalemates in world history, lasting for years and changing the USSR and
America to a completely different countries by its end. Through all but its threats, secrets, and world changing effects, it still pales in
comparison to a larger, grander war, one involving virtually every being on the planet. Slowly changing them, evolving them over time into greater adapted animals, yet still keeping them in an evolutionary deadlock with their opponents. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>I'm talking about the arms race that is co-evolution. </div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u> Co-evolution? More like Co-re-EVIL-ution? Right?</u></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeStSBoKgdHYLUEaIH2KvUTcFIF_8UsjFSFshGpba4aW0EuUjfR4SnqM-2-9zJ3dwLe9gganj-rlL3RcTmyqMnYcbEzYE0cip5uEUaoRLsgKWAS1KBHTrMdWyyoKqhytqZO-jDkzwaQSQ/s1600/snake.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeStSBoKgdHYLUEaIH2KvUTcFIF_8UsjFSFshGpba4aW0EuUjfR4SnqM-2-9zJ3dwLe9gganj-rlL3RcTmyqMnYcbEzYE0cip5uEUaoRLsgKWAS1KBHTrMdWyyoKqhytqZO-jDkzwaQSQ/s1600/snake.png" height="214" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Huh? Huh? Am I right? Am I right?<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#5" name="top5"><sup>5</sup></a>
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Horrible puns aside, co-evolution, the evolutionary arms race is a deadlock
between predator and prey, each one trying to gain an evolutionary advantage over the other. Take the
relation between the cheetah and gazelle for example. The cheetah, a predator
adapted for stealthy and speed, against it a gazelle would be easy prey, if it
were not for the gazelle’s own adaptations. Where cheetahs are designed for
encountering prey, gazelles are designed for avoiding dangers.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#6" name="top6"><sup>6</sup></a> They are agile,
have quick reflexes, and are fast, though not as fast as a cheetah. It seems as
though the two are locked in a stalemate, but even with all their adaptations some
gazelle fail to escape the feline speedsters, and it is this tip towards the
one side of the scale that will stoke the fires of the evolutionary arms race.
Over the years, as the weaker gazelles become prey to the cheetahs and the
stronger, better adapted members survive, you begin to see a slow change in
the population, maybe faster gazelles that can jump higher, run faster and
farther, far enough to escape being fancy feast for a ferocious feline. This
small advance now puts cheetahs at a disadvantage, and puts the task of developing
better adaptations upon them.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#6" name="top6"><sup>6</sup></a>
Through all this, though, the two continue to
reach a constant balance. </div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqq0Mk8-7ZYP5uo8eiain-8WgxaBQ7wBFoPBsx4AaW56wF4f9kWlAf0bkU_5EhXCXnDS21Z-JOqCytnoCYOVomvO5reCmnfyfn7FZZDD9-3dnYxW2_KLqmV6yVbzbLaz1DZYtLNj1YSpA/s1600/cheetah+evo.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqq0Mk8-7ZYP5uo8eiain-8WgxaBQ7wBFoPBsx4AaW56wF4f9kWlAf0bkU_5EhXCXnDS21Z-JOqCytnoCYOVomvO5reCmnfyfn7FZZDD9-3dnYxW2_KLqmV6yVbzbLaz1DZYtLNj1YSpA/s1600/cheetah+evo.gif" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">"Crouching Gazelle, Flipping Cheetah"<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#7" name="top7"><sup>7</sup></a>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u> The Red Queen and The Race Of Our Lives</u></span><br />
<br />
The cheetah becomes faster, the gazelle jumps higher. If
this continues their adaptations will only grow bigger. In a million years we
may have gazelles leaping through trees as if it were a kung-fu movie and
cheetahs with claws so big, they can cut a tree down in one swipe. A constant
progression, only to reach the same relation as before; there is a hypothesis for
this type of co-evolution, appropriately named “The Red Queen Hypothesis.”<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#6" name="top6"><sup>6</sup></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Now here, you see, it takes all the running
you can do to keep in the same place,” says the Red Queen to Alice.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=449003715591775347089#8" name="top8"><sup>8</sup></a>
This is seen in many animals of the animal kingdom, such as the cheetah/gazelle relationship, but also between us humans and one of our most influential predators, parasites. Their need to use us as a host is so great that we developed sex in order to try and fend them off, to some success.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#9" name="9" top=""><sup>9</sup></a>
But even though we developed new weapons and defenses and combined our DNA to strengthen the next generation against them, they retaliated with their own set of adaptations.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#9" name="top9"><sup>9</sup></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#10" name="to10"><sup>,10</sup></a>
Better camouflage, new infection methods, hiding themselves from our immune systems all keep these microscopic predators a constant and relevant threat to us. If it were not for our human ingenuity creating medicines to help eliminate them, our position in this evolutionary arms race would put us far from grabbing gold. As it now stands right now, we're barely bronze.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Red Queen<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#11" name="top11"><sup>11</sup></a>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="1"><b>1 </b></a>http://www.designer-daily.com/examples-of-american-cold-war-propaganda-2918<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top1"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="2"><b>2 </b></a>Miller, Roger Gene (2000). To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-967-1<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top2"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="3"><b>3 </b></a>http://eastgermany.info/plans.htm<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top3"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="4"><b>4 </b></a>http://www.coldwar.org/index.asp<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top4"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="5"><b>5 </b></a>http://fozmeadows.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/snappy-snake.png<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top5"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="6"><b>6 </b></a>Zuk, M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and the Parasites That Make Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harcourt, 2007.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top6"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="7"><b>7 </b></a>icanhasgif.com<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top7"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="8"><b>8 </b></a>Carroll, Lewis, and Ralph Steadman. Through the Looking Glass. New York: C. N. Potter; Distributed by Crown, 1973. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top8"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="9"><b>9 </b></a>Kurtz,Joachim.Sex, parasites and resistance – an evolutionary approach. <i>Zoology</i>. 106, (4) 2003: 327–339.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top9"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="10"><b>10 </b></a>Hillis, Daniel, W. Co-evolving parasites improve simulated evolution as an optimization procedure. Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena. 42 (1–3) 1990: 228–234.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top10"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="11"><b>11 </b></a>http://www.visembryo.com/story170.html<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4490037155917753470#top11"><sup>↩</sup></a><br />
</span>
Andyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13753996709061744327noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-32897992556877609932014-04-03T22:06:00.000-04:002014-04-03T22:06:11.610-04:00Sexual Selection<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: red;"> I</span> <span style="color: orange;">Like</span><span style="color: lime;"> Bright</span> <span style="color: blue;">Feather</span><span style="color: blue;">s</span> <span style="color: #e69138;">and</span><span style="color: #6fa8dc;"> I</span> <span style="color: magenta;">Cannot</span> <span style="color: #f1c232;">Lie</span></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: orange; font-family: Calibri;">Wouldn’t it be a wonderful world if the boys were the ones
who had the responsibility of wooing over a girl? Today it seems like girls are
the ones who are expected to dress up, do their makeup every morning, and stay
“bikini ready” just for the guys. I wish it were the other way around
sometimes…It would be nice to just roll out of bed, wear my pajamas to class,
and gain 20 pounds without anyone batting an eye. But wouldn’t it be even
better if you did all these things ladies, and the boys just couldn’t get
enough of you? This is the case in most animals, including birds. The male
birds go to extreme lengths to mate with a female. They undergo selective
pressures to get the chance to mate with a female[1]. Sexual selection causes
the males to grow colored and ornate feathers to attract the females[1].</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><img height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiKxe_rpVJFx2b2JjS8qhMlA_xg9h2LokR-oQ2tbO6wbrKcl_AkP8QgIUH5DfPpEex6N1WQXgE-2I3Q3t0JZJXqYv022zNxN3S8req-IJBjYLePXJosMLNvGavpnRbbBdetSv_Nmm1hDk/s320/2012_3_7_nerd%2520flowers.jpg" width="278" /></span><br />
<span style="color: #6fa8dc; font-family: Calibri;">Dress to Impress [2]</span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: magenta; font-family: Calibri;"><strong>Color-O-Meter</strong></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #c27ba0; font-family: Calibri;">When thinking of ornately feathered birds, the peacock comes
to my mind instantly. Look at that difference between the male and the female!
Who knew that boys could look so much better than their female counterparts?
For this blog post, I am going to take a few steps back and shed some more
light on why so many male birds are prettier than the females. Charles Darwin
developed a theory that explains this occurrence [3]. He proposed that the
traits that increase survival in a species are favored by natural selection. On
the other hand, traits that help a male win over females are influenced by
sexual selection. Sexual selection is the cause of the brilliant feathers on a
male peacock, the fiery red of a cardinal, and the red or orange on the crown
of a house finch.</span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><img src="http://i46.photobucket.com/albums/f113/scaouette/Male20Peacock20displaying.jpg" height="475" width="640" /></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #ffd966; font-family: Calibri;">Male and Female Peacock [4]</span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: lime; font-family: Calibri;"><strong>The Special One</strong></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: magenta; font-family: Calibri;">So why are the males the more colorful of the 2 sexes? This
is because it is the MALES job to attract the female. The female can pick and
choose over whichever male bird she fancies. That must be nice… You may be
asking yourself why do bright colors or long feathers seem attractive to the females.
Why don’t they just choose any ole bird? This is because the females know that
the most attractive bird is most likely the healthiest and will pass on the “best”
genes to her future offspring[3].</span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><a data-ved="0CAUQjRw" href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=nj_27RvMYbwToM&tbnid=7DVxqW_6cNSDsM:&ved=0CAUQjRw&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnature%2Flife%2FBirds_of_Paradise&ei=8Qk-U7WZD-fnsATVhYCwCQ&bvm=bv.64125504,d.dmQ&psig=AFQjCNEzOCuuyL6IYGwoSlQWGSZHK2MH2A&ust=1396661069406068" id="irc_mil" style="border-image: none; border: 0px currentColor;"><img class="irc_mut" src="http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/naturelibrary/images/ic/credit/640x395/b/bi/birds_of_paradise/birds_of_paradise_1.jpg" height="395" id="irc_mi" sb_id="ms__id3393" style="margin-top: 18px;" width="640" /></a></span></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: cyan; font-family: Calibri;">Birds of Paradise [5]</span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #3d85c6; font-family: Calibri;"><strong>Walk the Walk and Talk the Talk</strong></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #6fa8dc; font-family: Calibri;">Bright lengthy feathers aren’t the only things female birds
are after. They want a man that can be a great singer and exhibits a specific
behavior they deem attractive. An interesting example of this is in the
bowerbird species. The males create elaborate bowers (structures of various
sizes) and decorate them to attract the females. Each bowerbird has a specific
taste, and the male’s decoration displays their “personality”. Some like the
shiny beetle wings, while other male bowerbirds may choose flowers or berries.
The females drop by to check out the bowers and if they are impressed, the
males get to copulate with the female[6]. </span></div>
<span style="color: #6fa8dc;"></span><br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: blue; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">Follow this link for a peak into the lives of a bowerbird mating ritual!</span><a href="http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/weirdest-bowerbird">http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/weirdest-bowerbird</a></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"> <img src="http://www.duskyswondersite.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/bowerbird-6.jpg" /></span><br />
<span style="color: #ffd966; font-family: Calibri;">Male Bowerbird with decorated bower [7]</span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #a64d79; font-family: Calibri;"><strong>You Are the Only Exception</strong></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #d5a6bd; font-family: Calibri;">In some instances, the female bird can be more colorful and
ornate than the males of the same species. In these species the males incubate
and care for the young while the females fight over territory and mates. We
understand that the more competitive of the two sexes tends to be the more
brightly colored[3].</span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Calibri;"><strong>Conclusion</strong></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: #9fc5e8;">In many species of birds, males go through daily routines of
prepping for the females whether that is arranging their feathers or testing their
vocal chords. It is interesting to see the many ways sexual selection plays out
in bird species. Males spend much of their time and energy growing out
beautiful feathers, singing for hours, and “dancing” in some instances. If you
are a man and think your girl expects too much of you, then remember that she
never made you build a bower with aluminum cans, fungi, and leaves before the first date.</span> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="color: cyan; font-family: Calibri;"> References</span></div>
<br />
<ol style="direction: ltr; list-style-type: decimal;">
<li style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIE3Sexualselection.shtml"><span style="color: blue;">http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIE3Sexualselection.shtml</span></a></div>
</li>
<li style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiKxe_rpVJFx2b2JjS8qhMlA_xg9h2LokR-oQ2tbO6wbrKcl_AkP8QgIUH5DfPpEex6N1WQXgE-2I3Q3t0JZJXqYv022zNxN3S8req-IJBjYLePXJosMLNvGavpnRbbBdetSv_Nmm1hDk/s244/2012_3_7_nerd%2520flowers.jpg">https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiKxe_rpVJFx2b2JjS8qhMlA_xg9h2LokR-oQ2tbO6wbrKcl_AkP8QgIUH5DfPpEex6N1WQXgE-2I3Q3t0JZJXqYv022zNxN3S8req-IJBjYLePXJosMLNvGavpnRbbBdetSv_Nmm1hDk/s244/2012_3_7_nerd%2520flowers.jpg</a></div>
</li>
<li style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-are-male-birds-more-c/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-are-male-birds-more-c/</span></a></div>
</li>
<li style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://i46.photobucket.com/albums/f113/scaouette/Male20Peacock20displaying.jpg">http://i46.photobucket.com/albums/f113/scaouette/Male20Peacock20displaying.jpg</a></div>
</li>
<li style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/naturelibrary/images/ic/credit/640x395/b/bi/birds_of_paradise/birds_of_paradise_1.jpg">http://ichef.bbci.co.uk/naturelibrary/images/ic/credit/640x395/b/bi/birds_of_paradise/birds_of_paradise_1.jpg</a></div>
</li>
<li style="color: black; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="color: black; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://birds.fieldmuseum.org/stories/selection/sexual-selection"><span style="color: blue;">http://birds.fieldmuseum.org/stories/selection/sexual-selection</span></a>
</div>
</li>
<li style="color: black; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><div style="color: black; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 10pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1;">
<a href="http://www.duskyswondersite.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/bowerbird-6.jpg">http://www.duskyswondersite.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/bowerbird-6.jpg</a></div>
</li>
</ol>
<br />
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07624262303491862533noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-45752009041271463912014-04-01T22:24:00.004-04:002014-04-01T22:26:37.839-04:00Evolutionary Medicine: Darwin's Heel<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQNvRw7t7Zm_52fKdu6TIaZnLLnNdtk0108qmvQE1xLQSWF_PQCCTPj2MY0hn6YVLrfRf9gXhMN1OpnSpOndFHrLHySUjjCmmEcJqNG5sFX-n-74xaeY86ibiJOurhSueOrs4j-LfgJzE/s1600/untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQNvRw7t7Zm_52fKdu6TIaZnLLnNdtk0108qmvQE1xLQSWF_PQCCTPj2MY0hn6YVLrfRf9gXhMN1OpnSpOndFHrLHySUjjCmmEcJqNG5sFX-n-74xaeY86ibiJOurhSueOrs4j-LfgJzE/s1600/untitled.png" height="200" width="179" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Today [8]</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
It is a sunny 75 degrees outside, however the only things I can think about right now are Tylenol, Nyquil and my bed. Despite having a plethora of things to achieve today, my body decided to call it quits for the day, closing up my throat in between hoicks of phlegm while plaguing me with a headache and a desire for unnecessary sleep. I would tell you just how hot I am, but at the risk of sounding like a 65 year old chain smoker I will leave it to the thermometer. Oh great, it says 100.8 degrees. Now I have a fever, too? While these may be the common symptoms of the flu, my body may just be trying to tell me something…<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong><br /></strong>
<strong><br /></strong>
<strong>Darwinian Medicine</strong><br />
<strong><br /></strong>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_bSDn3H4L-Wvg1R98W81Rxf7Cy05LNTYGmEuU-VlHVJmVDAtDIzFdBxRCavv8Q35Uihnwbq_E1QbUVI1CLCv4_uv5qT3bOIyAeN7k1xLnVQW91RwOPc1R8rzjUWaCoWjfmkuy62abLNM/s1600/fat+guy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_bSDn3H4L-Wvg1R98W81Rxf7Cy05LNTYGmEuU-VlHVJmVDAtDIzFdBxRCavv8Q35Uihnwbq_E1QbUVI1CLCv4_uv5qT3bOIyAeN7k1xLnVQW91RwOPc1R8rzjUWaCoWjfmkuy62abLNM/s1600/fat+guy.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Is this what we have become? [5]</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
We live in a busy and sometimes stressful world; therefore it is not surprising that any time we feel even slightly under the weather, we immediately attempt to treat the symptoms so that we may be able to return to our day to day lives as quickly as possible. No harm, no foul, right? Well it as it turns out…not always. Evolutionary medicine (also termed Darwinian medicine) is a relatively new medical practice that looks to our evolutionary history for answers to questions such as; why and how do we get certain maladies? and how can we help to prevent illnesses in the first place [1]? An interesting example given by Dr. Marlene Zuk in Riddled with Life is the ever-increasing problem of obesity. Zuk argues that we are chemically designed to keep on weight due to the chemical leptin. When stores are low, the mind tricks the body into thinking that it is starving and hence triggers hunger and immediately begins to store fat. Furthermore, our bodies may crave foods that are high in calorie content not because of flawed self-restraint, but rather as an evolutionary adaption to efficiently gain energy from as little food as possible. In a hunter-gatherer society where food was scarce and starvation a real threat, it makes sense that the body would need a backup plan for storing fat, and not one for shaving it off [1,2].<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong>Why Am I so Hot?</strong><br />
<strong><br /></strong>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK48Q1mdgSiROksDmK7IXHGoK9hfThzI0kP03urFGTzZ8jQuECeEoYP9abm15yH_2nVbBtjO6Rf9BstniNhcx7ovu3Vx_XjaW_sShyNrJWKLQ-VeQuhpVJkRd13VOrcfODLaEBBtZXoqI/s1600/lizard.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgK48Q1mdgSiROksDmK7IXHGoK9hfThzI0kP03urFGTzZ8jQuECeEoYP9abm15yH_2nVbBtjO6Rf9BstniNhcx7ovu3Vx_XjaW_sShyNrJWKLQ-VeQuhpVJkRd13VOrcfODLaEBBtZXoqI/s1600/lizard.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Dipsosaurus dorsalis [6]</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Looking at the process of natural selection to help explain the relationship between the body and disease (rather than seeing disease as a threat to an otherwise flawless body) allows physicians to infer when the body’s response to an illness may in fact be beneficial and not a side effect caused by the pathogen itself. Most people instinctively know that the fever is an indicator that something is wrong with the body. However, proponents of evolutionary medicine argue that getting a fever is the body’s response to infection, and that it may actually increase the production of cytokines to increase immunity [1]. Studies by the University of Michigan reveal that the lizard <i>Dipsosaurus dorsalis</i> is an ectotherm that actively seeks the hotter areas of a room when infected with sodium salicylate. What is even more astounding is that the lizards that were exposed to higher temperatures recovered faster from infection [3]. Though we are endotherms who produce our own heat and do not rely on external sources to warm our bodies up, these results can indeed be transferred to mammals as we do not change our behavior but our metabolism to overcome illness. Taking medication to reduce a fever can therefore put you at risk of silencing a helpful mechanism and therefore having a slower recovery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong>What About the Other Symptoms?</strong><br />
<strong><br /></strong>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIKw9hW86eY34NNWW1eZFabQ5xEgDhtwAe-lxBAWucDhQWgC-xZMjttCENhvdFLurJm0V10nPqIiafPkh2jGg_nx8yateMkE7yZFIc0jEcGSbdu6O6NJ2DMq_lQpc8hNGCvfHKVPXVAG0/s1600/silhouette-of-woman-cough-007.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIKw9hW86eY34NNWW1eZFabQ5xEgDhtwAe-lxBAWucDhQWgC-xZMjttCENhvdFLurJm0V10nPqIiafPkh2jGg_nx8yateMkE7yZFIc0jEcGSbdu6O6NJ2DMq_lQpc8hNGCvfHKVPXVAG0/s1600/silhouette-of-woman-cough-007.jpg" height="192" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Limit the spread of influenza by covering your mouth [7]</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
It is most important when applying evolutionary medicine to ask whether the symptom is the body’s defense or the pathogen’s offence. For example, the respiratory tract is lined with mucus that traps dirt and pollen. When the body recognizes an unusually high dose of pathogen, the body responds by producing extra mucus to prevent the invader from entering the body. If too much is produced and not expelled, the airways are stimulated and a cough results, expelling the excess mucus from the airways and keeping the lungs safe from contact [4]. However, coughing releases infected particles in the mucus and saliva which increases spread of the pathogen to other victims. Friend or Foe? While a tingling throat and fever may be annoying pre-cursors of the flu, we must realize that the cost of responding to a false positive is far less than the cost of not responding to a false negative [1]. This means that at any sign of an intruder, the body is ready for attack because it does not want to risk holding fire in case of ambush attack. So how do we know whether to treat symptoms or not? Essentially, the goal of evolutionary medicine is to discover without a doubt where the symptoms are coming from. As for me, I am going to make myself a cup of tea and crawl back in to bed.<br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPZsNGdUBYU-aJWKsLIC8i7HyhILSX2W188YQ0PBaYma_Obq7dKd6Y367kfuiJTUeV8nMuYyJuXwIiixBa5UoDc_nRETTl0wStrnwzuEHaUP6EBp_nuYtXpWcjHcMK3_OTfusy08HL_Ag/s1600/Apr+1,+2014+10:21:19+PM.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPZsNGdUBYU-aJWKsLIC8i7HyhILSX2W188YQ0PBaYma_Obq7dKd6Y367kfuiJTUeV8nMuYyJuXwIiixBa5UoDc_nRETTl0wStrnwzuEHaUP6EBp_nuYtXpWcjHcMK3_OTfusy08HL_Ag/s1600/Apr+1,+2014+10:21:19+PM.jpg" height="240" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Goodnight!</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
[1] <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071402/">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1071402/</a><br />
[2] Zuk, M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and the Parasites That Make Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harvest, 2008. Print.<br />
[3] <a href="http://jp.physoc.org/content/279/1/187.full.pdf">http://jp.physoc.org/content/279/1/187.full.pdf</a><br />
[4] <a href="http://www.adclinic.com/2012/04/cough-causes-and-tips/#.UztAtsJOXmQ">http://www.adclinic.com/2012/04/cough-causes-and-tips/#.UztAtsJOXmQ</a><br />
[5] <a href="http://www.zmescience.com/">www.zmescience.com</a><br />
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<span class="ircho" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: start;">[6] </span></span><a href="http://www.wildherps.com/species/D.dorsalis.html" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">www.wildherps.com</a><br />
<span class="ircho" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: start;">[7] </span></span><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/dec/23/flu-surge-doctors-virus-children">http://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/dec/23/flu-surge-doctors-virus-children</a><br />
[8] <a href="http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=8qhCA2LKIezyjM&tbnid=CLAL6pR6-LdulM:&ved=0CAcQjB0&url=http%3A%2F%2Facurlygirlallthedaysofmylife.blogspot.com%2F2012%2F01%2Fwho-knew-that-vicks-vapor-rub-helps.html&ei=FmU7U4yoCYX20gH4toD4AQ&psig=AFQjCNG8n5kjodXOtAqrPvoH-WLhYTaeRQ&ust=1396487830234203"><span class="ircho"><span style="color: blue;">acurlygirlallthedaysofmylife.blogspot.com</span></span></a><br />
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09552159776563103622noreply@blogger.com14tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-16366012629817336252014-03-24T09:05:00.000-04:002014-03-24T09:05:19.914-04:00Are Males Worth It?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Selective pressures are the driving mechanisms for change in populations, and at one point in time, selective pressures chose the mechanisms of sexual reproduction over those of asexual reproduction. To help understand what types of things can decide whether the selective pressures sexual to asexual reproduction, let's take a look at the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction.<br />
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<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Disadvantages</h4>
There are significant disadvantages to sexual reproduction, and while these are not all of them, here are some important ones. Most of these disadvantages are lessened, if not mitigated, by reproducing asexually.<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Finding a Mate:</h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.enlargeyourplaylist.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/superb-bird-of-paradise.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.enlargeyourplaylist.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/superb-bird-of-paradise.jpg" height="252" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Superb Bird of Paradise</span><br /><a href="http://www.enlargeyourplaylist.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/superb-bird-of-paradise.jpg" style="font-size: x-small; text-align: left;">http://www.enlargeyourplaylist.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/superb-bird-of-paradise.jpg</a></span></td></tr>
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Everything has an energy budget that it must balance by the end of the its life. Even on a smaller scale, if more energy than usual is consumed in one aspect of activity, then another such aspect suffers from a deficiency. Finding a mate is a very strenuous activity. For males, as can be seen in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superb_Bird-of-paradise" target="_blank">Superb Bird-of-Paradise</a> (birds of paradise), elaborate mating rituals are very costly to the organism [4].This cost may be superficial as first, such as spending energy showing off to potential mates takes away energy from gathering food, but can also be less ostensible, such the price payed for such extravagant male characteristics - testosterone [1] - has its own set of adverse effects. Asexual mating removes the need to impress, and therefore the energy expenditure required to show off to the opposite sex. That very energy could be diverted towards reproducing more offspring, increasing the reproductive success of that organism.<br />
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The Video from class showing the intense mating rituals of birds of paradise:<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Ain't Nobody Got Time for That:</h3>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYnkFZRD0nAEsYeMQ67zHCYj9zVfPbuYRlilV2PNfyPuKxwzsls_Jylmf_NHQhv9BXFE5abSV6O32p19i7LklJT4xJ_8dkqhrx8v3y-Umc2G-34OFOppi2ODtYdRMBqLHaY5Jh9sVtRIY/s1600/Gangster_Octopus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYnkFZRD0nAEsYeMQ67zHCYj9zVfPbuYRlilV2PNfyPuKxwzsls_Jylmf_NHQhv9BXFE5abSV6O32p19i7LklJT4xJ_8dkqhrx8v3y-Umc2G-34OFOppi2ODtYdRMBqLHaY5Jh9sVtRIY/s1600/Gangster_Octopus.jpg" height="320" width="316" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Potential Octopus Threats<br />
<a href="http://fc05.deviantart.net/fs4/i/2004/223/7/b/Gangster_Octopus.jpg"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">http://fc05.deviantart.net/fs4/i/2004/223/7/b/Gangster_Octopus.jpg</span></a></td></tr>
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Sex itself consumes time. As can be seen from these <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RfndSuAg9n8" target="_blank">dolphins</a>, mating can happen very quickly. And as can be seen in these <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fkQZrfeYXQ" target="_blank">octopi</a>, staying in the mating encounters could potentially become dangerous (fellow on the right). The primary reason why this is true, is because both partners are vulnerable to attack during intercourse. Besides copulation taking up time, sexual reproduction is usually coupled with time spent investing in the next generation. This may be anything from sitting on eggs as they incubate, to gathering food, to having to work two jobs to make sure tuition is paid. This idea returns to the one mention above: energy budget. Time is as important a resource as energy when it comes to budgeting and managing it. Organisms that have to allocate time to make sure their future generation is successful, are taking that time away from other activities. Say in some species, such as the bonobo, males are extremely polygamous [2]. If a male in that species had to expend extra energy and time to ensure that its progeny would survive, it would be directly impacting its ability to have access to other females and the potential increase in the total number of offspring it could have had. In fact, it is very difficult to find examples of creatures that have polygamous mating rituals and strong male parental care. This plays into the uncertainty males have about the father of the child.<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJqSc1GRx4M4WMtSmZcJAfC4XBULnYo0cpDGffnK4eQ4Yikg37rGRR1_IHnMtGNTJ4Q_I9-9_fXP1C7Rt-B4MlCaogN_fZbA7fWBabKnKlYDGkhFekp1mOH93-uVQDau9WIanLqq1VCg1/s1600/19beautiful-bonobo-baby.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJqSc1GRx4M4WMtSmZcJAfC4XBULnYo0cpDGffnK4eQ4Yikg37rGRR1_IHnMtGNTJ4Q_I9-9_fXP1C7Rt-B4MlCaogN_fZbA7fWBabKnKlYDGkhFekp1mOH93-uVQDau9WIanLqq1VCg1/s1600/19beautiful-bonobo-baby.gif" height="213" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJqSc1GRx4M4WMtSmZcJAfC4XBULnYo0cpDGffnK4eQ4Yikg37rGRR1_IHnMtGNTJ4Q_I9-9_fXP1C7Rt-B4MlCaogN_fZbA7fWBabKnKlYDGkhFekp1mOH93-uVQDau9WIanLqq1VCg1/s1600/19beautiful-bonobo-baby.gif" style="font-size: x-small;">https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinJqSc1GRx4M4WMtSmZcJAfC4XBULnYo0cpDGffnK4eQ4Yikg37rGRR1_IHnMtGNTJ4Q_I9-9_fXP1C7Rt-B4MlCaogN_fZbA7fWBabKnKlYDGkhFekp1mOH93-uVQDau9WIanLqq1VCg1/s1600/19beautiful-bonobo-baby.gif</a></td></tr>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Not 100% Thrust into the Next Generation:</h3>
An innate problem with sexual reproduction is that not all of an organism's genes are present in the next generation. Naturally, about a half of the genes in an individual comes from one parent, the other 50% coming from the other parent. The goal of reproduction is to make sure that the organism's own genes are successfully transmitted, yet sexual reproduction places a theoretical limit of only half said organisms' genes continuing. As successive generations reproduce, one's progeny becomes less and less representative of those original genes. Asexual reproduction guarantees 100% transmittance.<br />
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Whenever I hear the concept of only 50% of genes being transferred to the next generation, I remember a movie I watched when I was still in grade school. The movie is called <u><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabbit-Proof_Fence_(film)" target="_blank">Rabbit Proof Fence</a></u>, and it told the story of three Aborigine girls who escaped from the "Moore River Native Settlement" to return to their families. The movie details the events of the Stolen Generation, a plan run by many agencies in Australia to remove Aborigine children and raise them in a western fashion, eventually having them bear children that were half Aborigine and half European in an attempt to breed out the Aborigine. Here is short clip film someone adapted and annotated for what seems to be a school project. I warn that some of the scenes are very intense.<br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/gcWmjqt2-PE?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
A Higher Chance for Infection:</h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.surfbirds.com/media/gallery_photos/20050710021606.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.surfbirds.com/media/gallery_photos/20050710021606.jpg" height="320" style="cursor: move;" width="313" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Purple Martins<br />
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://www.surfbirds.com/media/gallery_photos/20050710021606.jpg">http://www.surfbirds.com/media/gallery_photos/20050710021606.jpg</a></span></td></tr>
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Parasites play an interesting role in the ultimate selective pressure, opting for either sexual or asexual reproduction. Sexually Transmitted Diseases are commonly cited as disadvantages to sexual reproduction, but I hesitate to include them as something that was determinant of sexual or asexual reproductive strategies. STD's are opportunists that have evolved to become successful in their own right. By being passed from host to host through the exchange of fluids, STD's are just taking advantage of a easy bridge. Other forms of infection, such as maggots in <a href="http://www.purplemartin.org/update/Parasites.html" target="_blank">Purple Martins</a>, are similar in this regard (opportunists) to other notable STD's such as HIV [3]. What can be considered influential in the determination of which strategy, sexual or asexual, is the extended concept of STD's. The passing of something deleterious. Harmful things can be anything from viruses and bacteria to simply destructive DNA. Say, in a hypothetical sense, a mutation occurs in a generally asexually reproducing bacteria that leads to a gene that would cause the cell to die. Suppose this gene is usually deactivated, but say in the presence of lactose, the mechanisms that would allow for the generation of lactase were defective and resulted in a protein that either did not digest the lactase, or otherwise led to harmful chemicals to persist in the cell. The cell, before the external pressure of lactose, would reproduce normally, and have many progeny. All of a sudden, there is a significant percentage of the population that would die because the harmful element was passed generation to generation. Asexual reproduction would not contact above the baseline, average intraspecies interactions (potentially even more reduced as contact and proximity required in mate selection would also be gone).<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/7005/10.1038_nrg1087-f1_full.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/7005/10.1038_nrg1087-f1_full.gif" height="260" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">I wild Operon Appears<br />
<div style="font-size: medium;">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/the-lactose-operon-of-escherichia-coli-7005">http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/the-lactose-operon-of-escherichia-coli-7005</a></span><br />
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<a href="http://i.imgur.com/XjBMKdB.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://i.imgur.com/XjBMKdB.gif" height="135" width="320" /></a><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Boys:</h3>
There wouldn't be boys in asexual reproduction. While some would call this an advantage to asexual reproduction, I chose to ambivalent. Regardless, there is an impact of boys being in a population. Say the distribution between males and females was equal, 50-50. Compared to population of a 100 asexually reproducing "females," there are half the amount of reproductive females. The reproductive success of females is restricted by the number of eggs they hold, and the reproductive success of males is, similarly, dependent on how many mates they can encounter [10]. The theoretical maximum is therefore the total number of eggs females can consecutively get fertilized in their life times. The asexually reproducing population, would by default have twice as many females, and therefore a greater theoretical maximum.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/New_Zealand_Mud_snails.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/New_Zealand_Mud_snails.jpg" height="320" width="291" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/New_Zealand_Mud_snails.jpg">http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/New_Zealand_Mud_snails.jpg</a></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
There is snail native to New Zealand called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_mud_snail" target="_blank">Mud Snail</a>, <i>Potamopyrgus antipodarum</i>. The snail has the ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually [5]. The asexually reproducing snail creates clones, while the sexually reproducing produces genetically varying offspring. Parasitic influences from shallow water trematodes select for sexually reproducing snails that would have a varying genetic resistance to the parasite. In deeper water, the asexually breeding snail dominates due to the lack of parasitic pressures [9]. </div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span class="binomial" style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div>
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<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Advantages</h4>
<a href="http://i.imgur.com/vMk6OrB.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://i.imgur.com/vMk6OrB.gif" /></a>Despite these substantial negatives against sexual reproduction, it was selected for, and still is. As I am sure you are aware, the purpose of all adaptations is to help a population survive. It is interesting that regardless of all the downsides, the positives make up for it.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Cleaning up DNA Mutations:</h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/crossovr.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/crossovr.gif" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Crossing over during Meiosis<br />
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/crossovr.gif">http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/labbench/lab3/images/crossovr.gif</a></span></td></tr>
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"Cleaning up" is a loosely defined term in regards to DNA. The replication of genetic material has many steps and can be condensed into two main types of DNA replication: mitosis and meiosis [6]. The focus of this post is not the differences between the two, but if you want to learn more, click <a href="http://www.diffen.com/difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosis" target="_blank">here</a>. The main relevant difference is the result of the two mechanisms. Mitosis results in two daughter cells, each genetic copies of their mother, while meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells, each a different genetic combination of the mother, and only half the genetic material. It is not to say that genetic information is lost in the process, but simply redistributed. Sexual reproduction requires the conjugation of a haploid egg and a haploid sperm, coming from the female and male respectively. What does this have to do with "cleaning up?" It all has to do with recombination [7]. In sexual reproduction, genes have the chance to switch it up. In a mother cell of a sexually reproducing organism, half of the DNA comes from its mother and the other half from its father. So, when it divides into the four daughter cells, it could be assumed that it splits into two cells with the mother's genetic information, and two with the father's. This is not the case. During meiosis, pairs of chromosomes rearrange themselves, resulting in new combinations of maternal and paternal genetic material. Moreover, DNA can also partake in crossing over, which allows for individual chromosomes exchanging genetic material, increasing the genetic diversity of the resulting four daughter cells. These processes allow for new combinations of traits in progeny, causing the focus of selective pressures to fall upon individual traits and not just the successfulness of the entire genome. Overtime, mutations that could result in less favorable traits would be selected against, essentially cleaning the genetic material of a population. Evidence of this can be found in a study conducted by R. Stephen Howard & Curtis M. Lively, <a href="http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/Pubs/Howard%26Lively%201994%20Nature.pdf" target="_blank">here</a>.<br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
Genetic Variability:</h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/105235698-565x399_6.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/105235698-565x399_6.jpg" height="268" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/105235698-565x399_6.jpg">http://mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x430/public/105235698-565x399_6.jpg</a></span></td></tr>
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One undeniable benefit to sexual reproduction is genetic variability. In a population that doesn't suffer from selective pressures doesn't necessarily feel the need for genetic variability. Certain selective pressures are time dependent. These could be environmental pressures, which are comparatively short-lived pressures. An example of a constant selective pressure is good old parasitism. As I was mentioning earlier, parasitism has a kind of two way street deal with sexual reproduction. Because of sexual reproduction, organisms, and males specifically, are more exposed to parasites. Increased energy expenditure on masculine displays of virility draw energy from other processes, such as immune response. This male immunity, which is already relatively weaker than a female's due to testosterone (necessary for secondary male characteristics), is further weakened by increased energy consumption elsewhere, increasing the compatibility filter for assailing parasites [10]. But, because of genetic diversity, the likelihood that all individuals in the species are susceptible to a parasite decreases, thus selecting for a future generation to have a greater percentage of resistant individuals. This benefit has enormous benefits. An example where the lack of sexual diversity affected humans was the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" target="_blank"> Irish Potato Famine</a>. Almost all of the potatoes in Ireland were of the same lumper variety. These plants had be planted vegetatively, meaning that they were all clones [8]. When the potato blight hit Ireland, nearly eradicated the entire potato population. The lack of genetic diversity led to the parasite infecting the entire population unrestricted. This is a major concern today, as farmers continue to plant the same variety of genetically modified grain in an attempt to increase their yield [9]. There is a very real threat to these genetically modified crops, as they are already resistant to many generic parasites, and the hypothetical infection which could attack, would already be resistant plenty of preventative measures.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://familygonehealthy.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Genetically_Modified_Corn.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://familygonehealthy.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Genetically_Modified_Corn.jpg" height="214" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://familygonehealthy.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Genetically_Modified_Corn.jpg">http://familygonehealthy.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Genetically_Modified_Corn.jpg</a></span></td></tr>
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<h4 style="text-align: left;">
Conclusion:</h4>
Are males worth it? To many species, the answer is yes. The benefits of sexual reproduction outweigh the costs for many species. And while there are still many species of organisms that continue to reproduce asexually, it is as nature intended. Parasitic pressures drove organisms to reproduce in such a way that resulted in increased genetic variability in the population as well as the steady removal of unsuccessful traits. Sexual reproduction doesn't speed up evolution, and doesn't benefit an individual, but the entire population. An interesting thing to consider as well, some of the very downsides of sexual reproduction have become positives in that they give a certain degree of satisfaction. Finding a mate, for example, isn't time consuming, as it is usually the goal.<br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
References:</h4>
<span style="background-color: black; font-size: x-small;">[1] <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16671011">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16671011</a></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[2] <a href="http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/bonobo/behav">http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/bonobo/behav</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[3] <a href="http://www.purplemartin.org/update/Parasites.html">http://www.purplemartin.org/update/Parasites.html</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[4] <a href="http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2011/04/birds-of-paradise-ritual-of-seduction/">http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/wildlife/2011/04/birds-of-paradise-ritual-of-seduction/</a></span></span><br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="background-color: #666666; font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">[5] Fox J., Dybdahl M., Jokela J., Lively C. (1996). Genetic structure of coexisting sexual and clonal subpopulations in a freshwater snail (</span><i style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">Potamopyrgus antipodarum</i><span style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">). </span><i style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">Evolution</i><span style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">. 50 (4): 1541-1548</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="background-color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;"><br /></span></span></span><span style="line-height: 17.280000686645508px;"><span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">[5'] <a href="http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1008">http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=1008</a></span></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[6] <a href="http://www.diffen.com/difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosis">http://www.diffen.com/difference/Meiosis_vs_Mitosis</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[7] <a href="http://www.evolutionary-philosophy.net/sex.html">http://www.evolutionary-philosophy.net/sex.html</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[7'] <a href="http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/Pubs/Howard%26Lively%201994%20Nature.pdf">http://www.indiana.edu/~curtweb/Pubs/Howard%26Lively%201994%20Nature.pdf</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">[8] <a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/agriculture_02">http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/agriculture_02</a></span></span><br />
<div>
<span style="background-color: #444444; color: white; font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-size: x-small; line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">[9] Zuk, M. Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Ladybug Sex, and the Parasites That Make Us Who We Are. Orlando: Harvest, 2008. Print.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: black; color: white;"><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 17.280000686645508px;">[10] </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 32px; text-indent: -48px;">Combes, Claude. </span><i style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: small; line-height: 32px; text-indent: -48px;">The Art of Being a Parasite</i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 32px; text-indent: -48px;">. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2005. Print.</span></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11287695687326163966noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-77256789794469769472014-03-20T20:55:00.000-04:002014-03-26T22:05:25.634-04:00The Sicker Gender<br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<b><u>The Male and Female</u></b><o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
Both males and females are affected by the same diseases and parasites. Even though this is true, on average women live about 5
years more than males [1]. Males tend to have higher mortality rates than
females for almost all causes of death across the lifespan. The major difference peaks
in young adulthood when males reach reproductive maturity and begin to compete
for mates. There is not a parasite that is specific to just males or females,
but parasites kill twice as many males in developed countries and four times as
many males in underdeveloped countries as compared to females [2]. It
seems that not only do males tend to get sicker than females, but
they also tend to be more susceptible to parasites. If parasites and diseases aren't specific to
gender, what is the cause for males' mortality rates?<o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
</span><br />
<div style="mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Why Males are the Sicker Sex? </span></u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
</span><br />
<div style="mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b><u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">Physiologically: Testosterone Levels </span></u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
Vertebrate males have different
levels of sex hormones than that of females. Testosterone is the major sex
hormone in males that improves their secondary sex characteristics and allows
them to produce sperm. Although this hormone is very important to males, it
seems to be a main reason of why males are the sicker sex [3]. Testosterone depresses
immune cells, tissues, and organs. Not only does testosterone decrease the
immune system, it also increases other hormone levels such as cortisol, which
is a stress hormone that suppresses the immune system even further. The more
testosterone a male has, the weaker his immune system becomes [4]. Not only does it
decrease the immune system but it can give males something called the
"Testosterone Storm". This is a surge in testosterone levels that
seems to make men act reckless [1]. <o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
<b><u>Ecologically: Roaming </u></b><o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
Males have to search for females
to mate with which involves a good bit of roaming. Doing this expends a lot of
energy which has a negative impact on the immune system. Roaming will also increase
their exposure to parasties and pathogens[5]. Sometimes mating rituals or
habits cause males to become more exposed to parasites because they must stay
in a certain area for a long period of time trying to seduce females [6]. <br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
<b><u>Sociologically: Competition</u></b><o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
Some males must fight or compete
with other males in order to mate with females. Male to male aggression is
highest when only a proportion of males are able to be considered a desirable
mate or marriage partner. Cultures of species with polygamous cultures
or species increase competition among males [7]. Polygamous species favor males with higher testosterone levels because they will compete more, but this also decreases the immune system as mentioned earlier. Competition among males in a species fighting for a mate can receive fatal wounds which also contributes to a higher mortality rate than that of females. Males that must compete are usually much larger than the females in their species. Moore and Wilson found that the greater the difference in size between males and females, the higher the levels of parasitism in males[8]. They also found the more intense the competition among the males, the sicker they were [3].<br />
<br />
<b><u>Antechinus</u></b><o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
The Antechinus is a rodent-like
marsupial mouse that lives in Australia. Some antechinus species have short
term breeding periods. These animals are usually solitary except for during the
breeding periods. During a breeding period, both male and female antechinus
are ready to mate. This means that the male antechinus must fight for his
females. They spend the majority of rut competing with other males for females.
Competing with other males causes a lot of stress on the antechinus males. They are also constantly roaming as they try to find as many females as possible to mate with.
Stress produced by the environment or social interactions have been recognized
to increase the levels of corticosteroids which also affects the immune system. During this time, the male's digestive system will begin to break down due
to stress and lack of eating. The large amount of corticosteroids released
during this time cause immune system to failure. This makes the males unable to
defend themselves against disease and parasitism. After the breeding period, the females are
pregnant and all of the males die. The females can live up to two more years
after their first mating season [9].<o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/zv7b-KPg9hY?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<br />
<u1:p></u1:p> <o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
The example of the Antechinus is
a dramatic example of how intensely males can be affected by competition,
constant roaming, and the release of a large amount of stress hormones during the mating season.<o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>The
Spadefoot Toad</u></b><o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
The Spadefoot toad is an
amphibian that lives in the desert. They spend the majority of their time
borrowed underground to keep cool. They come out during periods of rainfall to
find a mate. They will travel to where the rain has made a pool and sit in the
water calling for a mate. A female toad will visit a pond once a year and mate.
They then lay their eggs and go back to a life of being alone. The longer a
male toad is immersed in the water, the more susceptible he is to trematodes
that live in the water. They will get more trematodes than females simply
because they are exposed in the water pools for a longer period of time [6].<o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
<br />
</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiefS0yJrjLOCKWHC0kUDtXWNs-ZGtfA8k4_D3SMiCrqanPOBIzXIXMQ0GCEZ9EZi1skX-18Vs_dc5SLO_6MHuofaWlzx-LzslkneBxiVAnLFCippwBEo7sUCnqspwhOypdsjY0fKX6Ymot/s1600/spadefoot.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiefS0yJrjLOCKWHC0kUDtXWNs-ZGtfA8k4_D3SMiCrqanPOBIzXIXMQ0GCEZ9EZi1skX-18Vs_dc5SLO_6MHuofaWlzx-LzslkneBxiVAnLFCippwBEo7sUCnqspwhOypdsjY0fKX6Ymot/s1600/spadefoot.png" /></a></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
</span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
The Spadefoot is an example of roaming and exposure. They will roam searching for a pool of water
and stay in that location until a mate happens to hear his croaking. <o:p></o:p><br />
<u1:p></u1:p>
<br />
</span><br />
<div style="mso-outline-level: 3;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><b><u><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Do Females
have an advantage?</span></u></b><u1:p></u1:p><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<br />
</span><br />
<div style="mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><u2:p></u2:p>Well,
it is obvious that males will be sicker because of the previously stated
reasons, but do females have advantages that make them healthier? Indeed, they
do! Females have a sex hormone called Estrogen. This sex hormone is known to do
just the opposite of Testosterone. It increases the immune system by stimulating T cells [10]. T cells function by recognizing self from non-self and help stimulate an immune response [11]. Most females, with the exception of some
species, do not roam or search for their mates. They let their mates find them which decreases exposure to parasites.
Females can also pick and choose a mate from the males that they encounter. This means that they are not competing for their mates.They can
pick the healthier male to mate with. This will decrease the chance that the
male she chooses will have parasites that can be passed to her.</span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">
<u1:p></u1:p> </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip7Z41hdiQ-3LCVXQugw-Ub1KKLz4QnK2BxlB2TGY39Opzz2cr72alrGxRTUCm4pgCPSqMMhrAnvKgEIRiJP6aLncXeSEUZdFFAuMS3h-5iHLuGanFS1cKoZku3Us1dXqUPsYk4XJ_i8ef/s1600/Estrogen+and+T+Cells+(3).png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip7Z41hdiQ-3LCVXQugw-Ub1KKLz4QnK2BxlB2TGY39Opzz2cr72alrGxRTUCm4pgCPSqMMhrAnvKgEIRiJP6aLncXeSEUZdFFAuMS3h-5iHLuGanFS1cKoZku3Us1dXqUPsYk4XJ_i8ef/s1600/Estrogen+and+T+Cells+(3).png" height="275" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">When estrogen is present, it increases the ability of a T cell to respond to an antigen and mediate an immune response [10]. </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><u1:p></u1:p><br />
<h4 class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<u>Sources<o:p></o:p></u></h4>
<span style="background-color: #666666;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">1. <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/02/why-women-live-longer-than-men_n_3696114.html">http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/02/why-women-live-longer-than-men_n_3696114.html</a></span></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p></o:p><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p>2. <a href="http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/ep026685.pdf">http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/ep026685.pdf</a></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p></o:p><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p>3. <a href="http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1000267">http://www.plospathogens.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.ppat.1000267</a></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">4. <a href="http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/10/3/345.full">http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/10/3/345.full</a></span></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">5. <a href="http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-s.mercer.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d7368721-738d-4685-baeb-1f759062a98e%40sessionmgr4005&vid=4&hid=4107">http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-s.mercer.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d7368721-738d-4685-baeb-1f759062a98e%40sessionmgr4005&vid=4&hid=4107</a></span></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><u><a href="http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-s.mercer.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=9&sid=d7368721-738d-4685-baeb-1f759062a98e%40sessionmgr4005&hid=4107">6. http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-s.mercer.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=9&sid=d7368721-738d-4685-baeb-1f759062a98e%40sessionmgr4005&hid=4107</a></u></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;">7. <a href="http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/ep026685.pdf">http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/ep026685.pdf</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;">8. <a href="http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~awhite/Bacelar_JTB2011.pdf">http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/~awhite/Bacelar_JTB2011.pdf</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p>9. <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/07/07/3262428.htm">http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/07/07/3262428.htm</a></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;">10. <a href="http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ScienceResearch/SpecialTopics/WomensHealthResearch/UCM248236.pdf">http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ScienceResearch/SpecialTopics/WomensHealthResearch/UCM248236.pdf</a></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;">11. <a href="http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/immunesystem/immunecells/pages/tcells.aspx">http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/immunesystem/immunecells/pages/tcells.aspx</a></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"> <span style="font-family: Calibri;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">12. </span><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zv7b-KPg9hY"><span style="font-family: Calibri;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zv7b-KPg9hY</span></a></span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 8pt;">
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #444444;">13. <o:p><a href="http://www.arkive.org/varaldis-spadefoot-toad/pelobates-varaldii/image-G52618.html">http://www.arkive.org/varaldis-spadefoot-toad/pelobates-varaldii/image-G52618.html</a></o:p></span></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02168267788157747015noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-61243174675568794632014-03-18T00:14:00.000-04:002014-03-18T00:14:31.997-04:00The Coevolutionary Process<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;"><strong><span style="color: orange;">What Is Coevolution?</span></strong></span></span><br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="background-color: black; color: white;">Coevolution is the process of two species putting
selective pressures on one another. The reciprocal selective pressures allow
both species to evolve, while not allowing one to get ahead of the other [4]. Coevolution
is most likely to occur between species with a persistent relationship that are in close ecological interaction with each other. There are three types of symbiotic relationships that are formed
through coevolution. These relationships include: predator/prey, parasite/host,
and mutualistic [2].</span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;"><strong><span style="color: orange;">Cuckoos and Reed Warblers</span></strong></span></span></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo-eggon-edge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo-eggon-edge.jpg" height="320" width="265" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo-eggon-edge.jpg"><span style="font-size: x-small;">http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo-eggon-edge.jpg</span></a> <span style="color: white; font-size: x-small;">[6]</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: white;">The relationship between <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cuculus canorus</i> (cuckoo) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Acrocephalus
arundinaceus</i> (reed warbler) is an excellent example of coevolution between a
parasite and its host. The cuckoo is a parasitic bird that tricks other bird
species into raising their own young [4]. While the reed warblers are absent from
their nest, the female cuckoo swallows the egg of the host species and then
replaces the egg with her own young. The tricked reed warbler parents then proceed
to raise the egg as their own. Once the cuckoo egg hatches, the cuckoo tosses
the host eggs to their death [4]. Once parasitized, the reed warbler’s
reproductive success is zero. Therefore, genetic variation that allows the reed
warblers to stop the cuckoos will be naturally selected for and passed on to
future generations [4]. The cuckoos then reciprocate and evolve traits which
allow them to persist longer in the host nest. Both species are in a constant
arms race to outsmart the other species [3]. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="color: white; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black;"><span style="color: white;">The female cuckoo will lay eggs that appear to mimic
the appearance of the eggs of their hosts, which hinders discrimination and
removal of their eggs by the reed warblers. In the first stage of coevolution
between <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. canorus</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A. arundinaceus</i>, natural selection
favors the birds that better discriminate cuckoo eggs from their own [4]. This rejection
behavior then puts selective pressure of the cuckoo to lay eggs that resemble
the host egg. This mimicry puts more pressure on the reed warbler to rejection
a foreign egg even if it greatly resembles its own [3]. This cycle of better
detection and rejection continues as long as there is continual renewal of genetic
diversity in both populations.</span> <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;"><strong><span style="color: orange;">Acacia Tree Ants</span></strong></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: white;">The relationship between the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pseudomyrmex ferruginea</i> (acacia ant) and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Acacia cornigera</i> (bullhorn acacia) is another example of coevolution.
Unlike the cuckoo and reed warbler, this is a mutualistic relationship. The
acacia ant no only depends on the plant for food and shelter but it also protects
the bullhorn acacia from preying insects and other plants [1]. The acacia have evolved traits in order to
support this mutualistic relationship. The tree has swollen and hollow thorns that
serve as both the ants’ home as well as their protection. The tree also provides
the ants with food both as nectar and Beltian bodies [1]. The ant has also evolved specific characters
to aid in maintaining this mutualism. The ants serve as a defense against
herbivores and they also remove fungal spores in order to prevent fungal
pathogens from entering the plant. The characters of both the ant and the
acacia are mutualistic traits that have evolved for the interaction in reciprocal
fashion [1].</span></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/Xm2qdxVVRm4?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm2qdxVVRm4 [5"><span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm2qdxVVRm4 </span></a><span style="color: white; font-size: x-small;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;"><strong><span style="color: orange;">The Cost of Coevolution</span></strong></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: white;">Coevolution plays a critical role in generating genetic
diversity. However, coevolution can come at a cost, especially between parasite
and host. In order for two species to both evolve, each much exert energy to
acquire new traits. Investment in certain traits can be costly, and can lead to
a decrease in fitness. For example, the male reed warbler increases surveillance
of the nest to decrease the chance of parasitism [4]. This leaves the female reed
warbler susceptible to fertilization by another male. The cuckoo birds also
have costs to developing new traits. The smaller size egg more closely
resembles the host egg but it is also an easier prey [4]. Both species have costs
to pay if they are going to be successful enough to pass their genes to the
next generation.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;"><span style="color: white;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b></b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="color: white; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>References</b></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: white;"><strong>[1]</strong></span> </span><a href="http://fission.sas.upenn.edu/caterpillar/index.php?action=retrieve&article=Janzen%2C1966coevolution.pdf"><span style="font-size: small;">http://fission.sas.upenn.edu/caterpillar/index.php?action=retrieve&article=Janzen%2C1966coevolution.pdf</span></a></span></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: white;"><strong>[2]</strong></span> </span><a href="http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIFCoevolution.shtml"><span style="font-size: small;">http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIFCoevolution.shtml</span></a></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: white;"><strong>[3]</strong></span> </span><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2603233/"><span style="font-size: small;">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2603233/</span></a></span></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: white;"><strong>[4]</strong></span> </span><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false"><span style="font-size: small;">http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false</span></a></span></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: small;"><strong>[5]</strong> </span></span><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm2qdxVVRm4"><span style="font-size: small;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xm2qdxVVRm4</span></a></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-size: small;">
<span style="color: white;"><strong>[6]</strong></span> </span><a href="http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo.htm"><span style="font-size: small;">http://s-f-walker.org.uk/2007intranet/2ndwk/cuckoo.htm</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-family: Times New Roman; font-size: small;">
</span></span> </span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12843951475946772548noreply@blogger.com9tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-63850902368474929202014-02-28T00:31:00.000-05:002014-02-28T09:29:40.559-05:00Symbiosis: Relationship Status<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;">Defining Symbiosis </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">When
it comes to relationships, nobody wants to feel used. Figuring out the perfect
balance of give-and-take is quite tricky. For parasites and other organisms, “relationship statuses” are quite complex. The term symbiosis
refers to an association that is both close and prolonged between at least two
organisms of different species [1]. This association can be further categorized into three forms: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism [6]. Furthermore, these broad categories also contain subcategories. For example, mutualism can be trophic, dispersive, or defensive [6]. This means two organisms are either equally sharing resources, one is providing resources and the other services, or both are providing services to each other respectively [6]. </span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Given these details, it is evident that deciphering between these three forms can be a bit problematic. </span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;">So, Which Relationship Is It?</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">When examining symbiotic relationships, one must take into account both costs and benefits of the species involved. In the case of the hermit
crab and its sea anemone(s), the advantages that the species gain are difficult to categorize.</span></div>
</h3>
<div style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: blue;"><i><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Hermit
Crabs and Sea Anemones</span></b></i></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpKAvQ8sf3G0yMDFvtpa-UHSnDyoN2K-AuNnC5mjE1Tvwr1HBfWz2j_PNGfO5G00OIeRSJhPjiZ075F4ExVOvTxOn-Yf2XGzqR_j0VLC7OiVQaetH7Zz8DUdWV10BhDZKuZ61YmOAfBUxx/s1600/Hermit.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpKAvQ8sf3G0yMDFvtpa-UHSnDyoN2K-AuNnC5mjE1Tvwr1HBfWz2j_PNGfO5G00OIeRSJhPjiZ075F4ExVOvTxOn-Yf2XGzqR_j0VLC7OiVQaetH7Zz8DUdWV10BhDZKuZ61YmOAfBUxx/s1600/Hermit.jpg" height="212" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://animals.pawnation.com/relationship-between-hermit-crabs-sea-anemones-1857.html">http://animals.pawnation.com/relationship-between-hermit-crabs-sea-anemones-1857.html</a> [3]</span></b></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">In “The Art of Being a
Parasite”, Claude Combes claims that the hermit crab and its sea anemone(s)
have a mutual relationship [2]. The anemone, which is attached to the shell of
the crab, provides protection for the crab, while in turn becoming more mobile
as a result of its attachment [2]. However, is this trade-off significant enough to label as an example of mutualism? This is where things become complex. Sandy Vigil, author for Demand Media, says these two species actually
display commensalism [3]. Why is this important? Well, mutualism refers to two
organisms sharing equal benefit in a relationship. On the contrary, when one
organism benefits and the other remains unharmed one considers the relationship
to be commensalism [3]. Vigil acknowledges the same advantages that Combes
presents: protection for the hermit crabs and increased mobility and a subsequent steady food supply for the sea anemones. So, why do they view the interaction differently? It seems that Vigil believes that due to the
symbiotic relationship being necessary for the survival of the hermit crab and not
the anemone, the two are not equally benefiting. Therefore, the interaction exhibits characteristics of commensalism [6]. If these organisms
could talk, the crab would most likely side with Combes and the anemones with
Vigil. The type of relationship shared by these organisms all comes down to perception. Thankfully, there <i>are</i> cases where organisms do share a clearly
defined symbiotic relationship and the perspective towards their relationship is consistent among observers.</span></span><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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</h3>
<div style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="color: blue;"><i><b><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Honey
Bees and Flowering Plants</span></b></i></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi84b-jzhG5MnDrXCHsUwXMyvNKL7IWvatXFgIK8mas8sCRMvlzdHjs-69O0bG_DEzd2rypuznXEVexB-YkalDeFTOXCG2ns43JQve-jamhf-W5_WZdGvNyduUxT1cOq1RMmZl5dVHttZuw/s1600/pollination_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi84b-jzhG5MnDrXCHsUwXMyvNKL7IWvatXFgIK8mas8sCRMvlzdHjs-69O0bG_DEzd2rypuznXEVexB-YkalDeFTOXCG2ns43JQve-jamhf-W5_WZdGvNyduUxT1cOq1RMmZl5dVHttZuw/s1600/pollination_1.jpg" height="256" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><a href="http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-pollination/pollination_1/">http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-pollination/pollination_1/</a><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span></b><b>[7] </b></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">The relationship
between<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Apis mellifera</i>,
commonly known as the honey bee, and angiosperms (flowering plants) is a
great example; these two species share an undeniably mutualistic relationship
[5]. Both the honey bee and the flowering plant rely on each other for
survival. There are three different groupings of honey bees which include: the
queens, drones (males), and the workers. The worker bees are the pollinators
[5]. Pollination is not an active process; instead, it occurs passively
as the workers search for food. During this search, the bees fly from one
flower to another collecting pollen and nectar. As the bees acquire these
necessities, they transfer pollen among the plants which fertilizes them [4]. In this case, it is obvious that both species need each other to survive and working together is in the best interest of them both.</span></span></span></div>
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</h3>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue; font-size: 18pt;">Is There Ever a Right Answer?</span></i></span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; text-indent: 0.5in;">Ultimately, when
examining the interactions between organisms it is up to the individual to
decide which symbiotic relationship is being displayed. In some cases, like the
honey bees and flowering plants one will find it easy to decipher between the
choices. On the other hand, in cases like the crab and its anemone(s), it will
take more effort for one to come to</span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; text-indent: 0.5in;"> a conclusion. The complex nature of symbiotic
relationships is not in the interactions themselves, but in the details of the
interaction. Are the organisms equally benefiting by sharing re</span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; text-indent: 0.5in;">sources, only using
another species for transportation, or simply providing shelter [6]? It is up
to the </span><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: small; font-weight: normal; text-indent: 0.5in;">spectator to decide.</span></h3>
<h3 style="margin-top: 0in;">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>References</b><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[1]<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1317043/"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1317043/</span></a><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">[2]<span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=snippet&q=anemone&f=false"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=snippet&q=anemone&f=false</span></a><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[3] </b><a href="http://animals.pawnation.com/relationship-between-hermit-crabs-sea-anemones-1857.html"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://animals.pawnation.com/relationship-between-hermit-crabs-sea-anemones-1857.html</span></a><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[4]<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><a href="http://www.orkin.com/stinging-pests/bees/honeybee-pollination/"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://www.orkin.com/stinging-pests/bees/honeybee-pollination/</span></a><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[5]</b><b><span style="color: blue;"> </span></b><a href="http://www.gpnc.org/honeybee.htm"><span style="font-weight: normal;">http://www.gpnc.org/honeybee.htm</span></a><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[6]<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-symbiotic-relationships.html">http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-symbiotic-relationships.html</a></span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 4;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>[7]<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-pollination/pollination_1/">http://sciencewithme.com/learn-about-pollination/pollination_1/</a><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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</h3>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14547607843164868764noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-26585815166340440402014-02-25T12:43:00.002-05:002014-02-25T12:43:22.741-05:00 Parasites Defy Koch’s Postulates <br />
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Parasites are organisms that
inhabit and get food from a host and often cause diseases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Once a parasite gets into a host, it
can go unnoticed, or it can cause severe infections.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[1]</span> Usually when a
microorganism is in a host, it can be found, isolated, and associated with a
particular disease to then be treated. That is not always the case for parasites,
which go against the criteria for identifying the relation between disease and
microorganism.<br />
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><b>Koch and His Postulates</b> </span></span></span></span></h3>
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<span style="color: red;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></b></span></h3>
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<br /></div>
Before a bacteriologist named Robert
Koch, scientists were baffled about the idea of how a specific microorganism caused a
particular disease<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[3].</span> After a series of scientific experiments, Koch and his
colleagues came up with the Koch’s postulates in the 1800’s to help identify
the relationship of the pathogen or microorganism and the disease it causes.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[3,5]</span> He and his colleagues used mice as the
hosts in experiments to study the connection between microbes and diseases. Koch’s four
postulates are: </div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[7] </span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/Ffrq1lIfE1o" width="420"></iframe>
<span style="color: #ea9999;"> </span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999;">1) </span> The organism/pathogen must be present with every case of
the disease and absent in healthy individuals </div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999;">2)</span> The pathogen must be grown in a pure culture when isolated
from the diseased host </div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999;">3)</span> Then, that isolated pathogen should cause the same
disease when re inoculated into a healthy test subject/host.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #ea9999;">4)</span> The pathogen must then be re isolated from the new host
and cause the same disease in a pure culture as the initial one.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[5] </span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;"> </span><br />
<br /></div>
<h3 class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="color: red;">Parasites Disregard the Postulates</span></b> </span></span></span></b></h3>
<h3 class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When the postulates were first introduced, they helped
clarify questions in the scientific community about diseases related to
pathogens. . The postulates could not be used for studying diseases caused by
things such as parasites. Parasites are not the only ones that do not follow
the postulates though; there were limitations to Koch’s findings when diseases
such as Cholera and some viruses were studied. For example, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vibrio
cholerae</i>, the bacterium that causes cholera, can also be found in healthy
hosts, invalidating the first postulate.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4]
</span>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
An example for a parasite that does
not follow the postulates is the plasmodium that causes malaria.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://legacy-cdn-assets.answersingenesis.org/assets/images/aid/v5/malaria-life-cycle_large.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://legacy-cdn-assets.answersingenesis.org/assets/images/aid/v5/malaria-life-cycle_large.jpg" height="243" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[9]</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br />
The
problems found in the postulates for studying parasites were:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #ea9999;">1)</span> Many parasites are asymptomatic and so we cannot tell
when the parasite is present or not present. Also, the parasite could be hidden
or dormant for its own benefit. A female mosquito carries and transfers the
plasmodium but it could be present in a healthy host in low levels and
therefore go unnoticed, voiding the first postulate. <span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4,2] </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #ea9999;">2)</span> The second postulate states that the microorganism must
be grown in a pure culture and parasites are not easily grown in pure cultures.
Parasites need adequate conditions to grow in and so the second postulate was
not useful in finding a parasite causing a disease. The plasmodium of malaria
cannot be grown in a pure culture outside of a host, defying the second postulate. <span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4,2]</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://wordpress.as.edu.au/tlane/files/2013/02/url.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://wordpress.as.edu.au/tlane/files/2013/02/url.jpeg" height="256" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[6]</span><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #ea9999;">3)</span> The third postulate states that the pathogen must
infect another animal host and produce the same outcome. This cannot be tested
because there may not be adequate animal hosts that would cause the same outcome
as in humans. For malaria, humans cannot be tested on due to ethical issues. It
would not be ethical to use humans as test subjects and perform experiments on. Some parasites only cause
the disease when in humans and not in other animals. Also, some animals may not
carry the parasite in the same way as humans. For another example, Kuchenmeister,
a scientist, studied parasites that were seen as bladder worms in pigs but
tapeworms causing Taeniasis in humans.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[1] </span>This showed that there are different
stages of a parasite’s life cycle expressed in different hosts making it
difficult to say that the same parasite causes the same disease. There can be
many intermediate hosts of parasites before reaching a definitive or final
host.<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4] </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[8]</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" frameborder="0" height="315" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/bb32g02IIs8" width="560"></iframe> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: #ea9999;">4)</span> The dilemma with the fourth postulate is that since the
life stages of the parasites could be different in different hosts, it would be
difficult to re-isolate the microorganism and grow it in a pure culture to
produce identical results. Again, the plasmodium cannot be isolated and
re-grown in a pure culture due to the nature of the parasite and the
environment it needs to grow. <span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4,2]
</span><br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;"><b>The Postulates Now </b> </span></span></span></span></h3>
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Today,
Koch’s postulates are still used in determining the links between microbes and the
disease they cause but are not very useful in finding the relationship between certain microorganisms such as viruses and parasites and diseases they cause.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h2>
<span style="color: lime;"><b><span style="font-weight: normal;">Works Cited </span></b></span></h2>
<br />
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">1)
<a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/</a></span><style>
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--> http://www.microbemagazine.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3664:kochs-postulatesthen-and-now&catid=812&Itemid=1095</style><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">2)
<a href="http://www.microbemagazine.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3664:kochs-postulatesthen-and-now&catid=812&Itemid=1095">http://www.microbemagazine.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3664:kochs-postulatesthen-and-now&catid=812&Itemid=1095</a></span></div>
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">3) <a href="http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/koch%E2%80%99s-postulates">http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/koch%E2%80%99s-postulates</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">4) <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3158372/">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3158372/ </a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">5) <a href="http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Koch_s_postulates.html">http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Koch_s_postulates.html </a> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">6) <a href="http://wordpress.as.edu.au/tlane/2013/02/20/clonorchis-sinesis-pork-tape-worm/">http://wordpress.as.edu.au/tlane/2013/02/20/clonorchis-sinesis-pork-tape-worm/ </a> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">7) <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ffrq1lIfE1o">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ffrq1lIfE1o</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #b4a7d6;">8) <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bb32g02IIs8">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bb32g02IIs8</a></span></div>
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</style><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">9) <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/">http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/</a></span>
</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13746375421170700483noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-73573451378229204932014-02-24T10:57:00.000-05:002014-03-24T21:58:59.999-04:00Hygiene Hypothesis and Helminthic Therapy<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><b>Hygiene
Hypothesis and Helminthic Therapy</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The parasites are usually recognized as notorious creatures
which infect and damage hosts’ bodies, even though they do not mean to harm the
hosts—they are merely trying to survive and continue their generations. However,
this is not always true. Recent studies suggest that some parasitic worms may
be useful in treating autoimmune diseases such as Crohn’s disease or allergies.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<b>Hygiene Hypothesis</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Autoimmune disease refers to the abnormal functioning of one’s
immune system that cannot differentiate self-tissues and other tissues. This
leads to one’s antibody attacking one’s own body. One possible cause of this
disease can be explained with the hygiene hypothesis, which states that early life
exposures to germs decide the sensitivity to allergic and autoimmune diseases. In
fact, the more advanced countries with better hygiene systems with less
exposure to germs have an increasing rate of autoimmune diseases. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So, what effect do germs, including parasites, have on the
immune system? They trigger the Type 2 helper T cells by tickling proteins
called cytokines, which initiate a healing process. However, if there are not
enough germs in the body, then the immune system would attack its own body
instead of the germs, and this leads to inflammation and diseases. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Trichuris trichiura—great for Helminthic Therapy</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-iWBX342jR2s/UwtrdPuTczI/AAAAAAAAAAM/1xDYvyBDwis/s1600/www.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-iWBX342jR2s/UwtrdPuTczI/AAAAAAAAAAM/1xDYvyBDwis/s1600/www.jpg" height="177" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
Trichuris trichiura</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.isciencetimes.com/articles/4998/20130423/worm-therapy-swallowing-live-parasites-help-treat.htm</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br />
One of the best parasites that were found so far would be
Trichuris trichiura, also known as whipworms. This is usually found in humans
or pigs and is known as a great treatment for Crohn’s disease. This disease
affects any part of the gastrointestinal tract and causes inflammation. This
creates symptoms such as diarrhea, rectal bleeding, fever, etc. Whipworms are
great to be used since they do not cause any serious damages in human body even
though they are still parasites. Also, they are big enough to be recognized by
immune system, and the antibodies would attack the whipworms instead of its own
body tissues. This in fact results in 75% of cure of Crohn’s disease. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Controversy</b><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Even though the use of helminthes significantly increased of
cure of autoimmune diseases, some scientists still doubt about the safety. They argue that parasites are parasites and
they may cure some diseases, but they also may cause other problems, so it has
to be studied a lot further. It also needs to be very carefully used. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
References:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971213000982">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1201971213000982</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://gut.bmj.com/content/54/1/87.full">http://gut.bmj.com/content/54/1/87.full</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.livescience.com/17923-parasitic-worms-wound-healing.html">http://www.livescience.com/17923-parasitic-worms-wound-healing.html</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://nutritionwonderland.com/2009/02/parasitic-worms/">http://nutritionwonderland.com/2009/02/parasitic-worms/</a><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/whipworm/biology.html">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/whipworm/biology.html</a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Mingi Simhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12486341613100429166noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-19839029197284886902014-02-20T15:12:00.000-05:002014-02-20T15:23:54.998-05:00Defense Evasion: Molecular Mimicry <div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Parasites, like ninjas, need to come up with
intuitive ways to evade their targets defenses. Parasites are organisms that rely on a host in
order to reproduce and survive. The ability of a parasite to withstand the
onslaught of their host’s defenses, such as the immune system, is a critical
factor in determining life or death.
Natural selection has given parasites multiple ways of avoiding the host
defense. Some of the survival mechanisms parasites utilize include hiding in areas of the host where the immune
response is overlooked, suppressing the immune system in order for easier
invasion, and forming a protective cyst. [1] In
addition to these avoidance mechanisms, parasites have clever method to
cloak themselves from phagocytic cells of the host. These parasites can produce
compounds in order to disguise itself as part of the host. This sneaky tactic,
molecular mimicry is an ingenious method of protection from a hosts immune
system. </span><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="color: #3d85c6; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span><a href="file:///C:/Users/Manish/Desktop/Parasitology%20Blog%20Assignment.doc.docx#_edn2" name="_ednref2" style="color: #6fa8dc;" title=""><!--[endif]--></a></span><span style="color: #6fa8dc;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span class="MsoEndnoteReference" style="color: lime;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: orange; font-size: x-large;"><b>Hide
and Seek</b></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;"> </span><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Parasites rely on molecular mimicry in order
to stay hidden from dangerous phagocytes of the immune system. The basic
premise of this mechanism is for the parasite to produce a cellular
component that can be identified by the host immune system as its own.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
This stealthily enables the parasite to hide its antigen characteristics,
and this lowers the risk of recognition by phagocytes. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
This molecular deception is used by various parasites to enhance their chance
of survival in hosts. For example, the
intracellular parasite, <i>Neisseria
meningitids</i>, which causes meningitis, uses molecular mimicry to protect
itself from the hosts immune system. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span> <i>Neisseria </i>is able to avoid the antibody
mediated immune system response by producing a protein that binds to factor H
of the immune system. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span> Factor
H binds to normal cells for autoimmune protection. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
This prevents the healthy cell of the host from being attacked by its own
immune system. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
By being able to produce a protein that binds to factor H, <i>Neisseria</i>, is able to hide and gain similar protection just like
normal cells.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
As a result, <i>Neisseria</i>, is able to hide among the cells without facing
destruction. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: lime; font-size: x-large;"><b>We Are Cloaked!</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3d85c6; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
blood fluke, S<i>chistosoma mansoni</i>, is
a small worm that infects millions of people with the chronic illness known as
intestinal schistosomiasis. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span> The
fluke goes through different stages of development in order to reach full
maturity. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
Before <i>mansoni </i>can infect humans, it
uses snails as an intermediate host. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
The snail provides a place for the fluke to mature on its journey to reach its
definite host. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
The problem that arises during this period of growth is the snail's immune
system, and in order to survive, <i>mansoni</i>
must use the power of molecular mimicry.[4<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
The immune system of a snail is comprised of molecules called lectins, and
these function in the recognition of various
molecule such as carbohydrates and sugars. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
The lectins help seek out foreign particles in the snails immune system and
stimulate an immune response. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span> In order to counteract this detection system,
the fluke possess sugars that are already present in snails, and
this makes it very difficult for the lectins to recognize the flukes’ presence
as foreign.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span>
By using molecular mimicry the blood fluke is to cloak itself while developing
in the intermediate host without any interruption. Molecular mimicry makes it
possible for parasites to sustain themselves in the unforgiving environment of
the host. </span><br />
<span style="color: #3d85c6; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">As a result, molecular mimicry gives parasites a fighting chance against the deadly defenses found in many host organisms. Out of all the methods that parasites can utilize to stay alive in the host, molecular mimicry is a devious approach to achieving a higher chance of survival. </span><br />
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<!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;"><b>References: </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) <a href="http://textbookofbacteriology.net/antiphago.html">http://textbookofbacteriology.net/antiphago.html</a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2) <a href="http://www.ppdictionary.com/parasites/mansoni.htm">http://www.ppdictionary.com/parasites/mansoni.htm</a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3)<a href="http://textbookofbacteriology.net/themicrobialworld/meningitis.html"> http://textbookofbacteriology.net/themicrobialworld/meningitis.html</a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4) <a href="http://www.news.wisc.edu/21575">http://www.news.wisc.edu/21575</a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5) <a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/Games.html#Phagosome_Lysosome">http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/Games.html#Phagosome_Lysosome</a></span></div>
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Manish Kanukuntahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16833108196081818368noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-53982470272863973172014-02-19T01:44:00.001-05:002014-02-19T01:44:07.153-05:00Adaptations of Organisms Upon Encounter<h3>
<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span></h3>
<h3>
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3826" style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Death or Survival?</span></h3>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="yiv3019898217MsoNormal" id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_2711">
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_2710" style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">For a parasite to survive, it must be able to do two things, encounter the host, and be compatible with the host. To encounter the host, the parasite evolves special phenotypes which allow for a greater rate of encounter, or it simply lives in areas where the host must meet the parasite at some point. Unfortunately for the parasite, hosts also evolve to be able to either fight the parasite or avoid it. If the parasite has been able to latch onto or enter the host, it must now survive while draining nutrients from its victim. This is where being compatible with the host is essential. If the host is able to detect the parasite and remove it, the parasite dies and the host is able to keep its resources to itself. This is where either closing the encounter filter or the compatibility filter is important in the destruction of the parasite.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[1]</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div>
<h3>
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3836" style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Fleas Fleas Everywhere!</span></h3>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="yiv3019898217MsoNormal" id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_2720">
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_2719" style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">When a host is able to detect a parasite, it must decide whether to avoid it entirely or kill it off. Two similar hosts, the great tit and the blue tit, must make the decision whether to live in a nest with fleas or without. Normally, both tits prefer to live without fleas so that they my keep their resources and not share them with the fleas, but this is not always possible.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[1]</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">For multiple reasons, a tit may decide it is easier to contend with the fleas and must now compensate in a variety of ways for the resources the fleas are taking from both parents and nestlings. For both species of tits, the nestlings are greatly affected from the presence of fleas. They are smaller in size and weight which makes it harder for them to survive and mature. There begging rate also increases because they lack resources sufficient resources to allow development into a mature adult. This increased begging rate causes stresses on the father because he is focused on providing for the current generation of nestlings. To do this, he will leave the nest more frequently to find food which tires him and makes him more susceptible to disease like malaria.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[1]</span><span style="color: #f4cccc;"> While the father puts in effort to acquire more food, the mother tit usually bears a larger brood because she focuses on the future generations she will lay.</span></span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[2,3]</span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">These behavioral changes were all the result of not closing the encounter and compatibility filters and resulted in a lifestyle which greatly reduced the health of both parent and nestling tit.</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div>
<h3>
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3840" style="background-color: black; color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">Changing Your Skin to Avoid Detection</span></h3>
<div>
<span style="background-color: black; color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18px;">When a parasite enters its host, it must either avoid detection or be able to withstand the persecution of the hosts’ immune response. </span><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 18px;">Trypanosoma Brucei</i><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"> is a protozoan which causes African sleeping sickness.</span></span></span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3OseplzS9Jw2vx-BdJ9fj4WXhQwrSqcbdYjRafO-PKWibjzCI_2UiFqc_BuOS-MOUnsCNl9LAo8JvWrIVAdwMuR-0barU7WuRM7XjXA7nT6ls8GrGhyphenhyphenfV2m02l6OfDWLj3sOUXHUDUEA/s1600/Trypanosoma.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3OseplzS9Jw2vx-BdJ9fj4WXhQwrSqcbdYjRafO-PKWibjzCI_2UiFqc_BuOS-MOUnsCNl9LAo8JvWrIVAdwMuR-0barU7WuRM7XjXA7nT6ls8GrGhyphenhyphenfV2m02l6OfDWLj3sOUXHUDUEA/s1600/Trypanosoma.gif" height="232" title="" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/sleepingsickness/biology.html" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: start;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/sleepingsickness/biology.html</span></a><span style="color: #b4a7d6;"> [7] </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="yiv3019898217MsoNormal" id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3843">
<span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3842" style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">To be able to survive in mammals, it has developed the ability to change properties of antigens upon its membrane surface.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[4]</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">An antigen is a foreign substance which triggers an immune response which ultimately results in antibody development for that specific foreign substance.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[5]</span></span><sup style="font-size: 12pt;"> </sup><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-size: small;">The antigens of </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">T. Brucei</i><span style="font-size: small;"> are concentrated on the surface of the protozoan in a thick glycoprotein known as the variable surface glycoprotein (VSG). What distinguishes </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">T. Brucei </i><span style="font-size: small;">from other microorganisms is that its VSG has over 1000 genes which allow it to adapt to immune responses.</span></span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">[6]</span><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">When the immune system is able to detect the antigens expressed by the VSG and mount a response to kill </span></span><i style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">T. Brucei</span></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">, it mutates its VSG using a different gene which expresses another antigen the hosts immune system has not yet identified and formed antibodies for.</span> </span><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; font-size: 12pt; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIlngTBeoW7d4wkk-g93DTS_2yQ-B8r3YOko6OCGgWCwkZCJja4Oiqfk_4_FpXxF3pdzR17EhnM2DsUCeotuEsFHAkJjrfCl3_m9xkyYvpYxIZocJInvD79LW2pOSp9qCIKX5cafZ9nPA/s1600/Trypanosoma+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIlngTBeoW7d4wkk-g93DTS_2yQ-B8r3YOko6OCGgWCwkZCJja4Oiqfk_4_FpXxF3pdzR17EhnM2DsUCeotuEsFHAkJjrfCl3_m9xkyYvpYxIZocJInvD79LW2pOSp9qCIKX5cafZ9nPA/s1600/Trypanosoma+2.jpg" height="320" width="258" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: start;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1428_F2.html" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: start;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1428_F2.html</span></a> </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px; text-align: start;">[8]</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-size: small;">
By mutating the VSG </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">T. Brucei</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">, it</span> <span style="color: #f4cccc;">is able to thrive within its mammalian host for extended periods of time. This lengthy survival is possible because of the roughly one week period of time the body takes for an adapted immune response to target and kill </span></span><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><i style="font-size: 12pt;">T. Brucei. </i><span style="font-size: small;">With over 1000 different genes in the VSG, it can avoid detection of the mammalian adaptive immune system for a minimum of 1000 weeks (19.23 years) which allows an ample amount of time for it to be able to reproduce and pass its genes to the next generation.</span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">References</span><span style="line-height: 18px;">:</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">1)</span> </span><u><span style="color: #f4cccc; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">The Art of Being A Parasite</span></u><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;"> by Claude Combes</span> </span><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=bothriocephalus+gregarius&source=bl&ots=zEQ9I30Ou0&sig=IGbgHPXOnso-3mDBKJSu2nwbtMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=khPvUsryCubXyAGP1oCoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw%23v=onepage&q=bothriocephalus%20gregarius&f=false#v=snippet&q=compatibility%20filter&f=false" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=bothriocephalus+gregarius&source=bl&ots=zEQ9I30Ou0&sig=IGbgHPXOnso-3mDBKJSu2nwbtMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=khPvUsryCubXyAGP1oCoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw%23v=onepage&q=bothriocephalus%20gregarius&f=false#v=snippet&q=compatibility%20filter&f=false</span></a></span><br />
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">2) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/5390" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.jstor.org/stable/5390</span></a></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">3) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/2/127.short" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/7/2/127.short</span></a></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">4) </span><span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3850" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0166685192900044" id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3849" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0166685192900044</span></a></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">5<span style="background-color: black;">) </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Antigen" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="background-color: black; color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.biology-online.</span><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">org/dictionary/Antigen</span></a></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">6) </span><span id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3847" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=13&SID=1FW128QdnJBfbUMaBwq&page=1&doc=4" id="yui_3_13_0_ym1_1_1392785661096_3846" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=13&SID=1FW128QdnJBfbUMaBwq&page=1&doc=4</span></a></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;">7) </span><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/sleepingsickness/biology.html" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/sleepingsickness/biology.html</span></a></span></div>
<span style="color: #b4a7d6; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">8) <span style="color: #b4a7d6;"><a href="http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1428_F2.html" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1428_</span></a><a href="http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v4/n6/fig_tab/nrmicro1428_F2.html" rel="nofollow" shape="rect" style="line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: none; padding: 0px;" target="_blank"><span style="color: #b4a7d6;">F2.html</span></a></span></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11628593331691280092noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-1630573047709594442014-02-17T10:49:00.000-05:002014-02-17T10:57:52.229-05:00Fight or Flight?<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Two lines of
defense</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;">The
evolution of parasite and host interactions is a never-ending arms race: the
parasite tries to get ahead of the host while the host tries to get ahead of
the parasite. According to Claude Combes, two filters can represent the arms
race between hosts and parasites: encounter and compatibility. The parasite wants to open the filters where
as the host wants to close them<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span></sup>. Going along with this idea, there
are two lines of defense that can help a host evade parasitism. The first line
of defense is to avoid the parasite all together, which in turn closes the
encounter filter. The second line of defense is, in the event that the
encounter does occur, to fight off the infection, which closes the
compatibility filter<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span></sup>. Idealistically, both of these lines of
defense work; however, which one do hosts utilize more frequently: flight or
fight?<span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Flight</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; text-indent: 48px;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/paragonimus/biology.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnwmPOjVvu7Xf3nm-pXXVxg-WXiG12AHf5Mct6LQH5s2gM6JVg5X5G_KXfJyXzzTn6PionDJd4AliHOj44Q8M1RRPO-gXP3CYt4TdtzP5eJ_br6DZi5tc_9ZddSsEl2QhcRHpcnLZknZQM/s1600/Screen+Shot+2014-02-17+at+10.54.15+AM.png" height="229" width="320" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/paragonimus/biology.html" target="_blank">Lifecycle of <i>Paragonimus westermani</i></a></td></tr>
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Have you ever gotten a small scratch or bug bite that you did not notice until it started burning or itching? Most of the time we do not realize when we got the scratch or bug bite because they are so minute. The same can be applied to a host/parasite relationship. Parasites are incredibly small to the point where they are not visible to the naked eye. Hosts need to be able to detect a parasite in order to avoid it. Because they are so small, even though they give off signals for detection, the amount of signals given off by a parasite is not detectable by a host</span><sup style="font-family: Calibri; text-indent: 48px;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span></sup><span style="font-family: Calibri; text-indent: 48px;">. Just like how we don’t realized the cut until it burns, in the same way, the host doesn’t detect the parasite until its immune system has.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPjFmrv3Ig-ib0qPDvvsjjjknjOkL0UJxlcqbfgXW56-GCToenMWAjTSZ9VENMGAkxgCqiromaoMVH1Het7Xnl6SfthyphenhyphenKJHXO8sSJpkMJ4SKRToYjIlK6hC3v9O0KaF1Lj-iUAsCznEXtr/s1600/Screen+Shot+2014-02-17+at+10.34.26+AM.png" height="281" width="400" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html" target="_blank">Lifecycle of <i>Dracunculus medinensis</i></a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;">Another
reason why parasites are hard to avoid is because they are found in places that
cannot be avoided, such as the water and prey<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">2</span></sup>. All of the parasitic
helminthes (which include the roundworms, flatworms, and flukes) have a period
of their life cycle in which they spend in an aquatic environment<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">3</span></sup>. For
example, the female <i>Dracunculus medinensis</i></span><span style="font-family: Calibri;">, otherwise known as the guinea worm, causes
a blister to form in the human host. The blister causes severe pain and
discomfort, which can bee soothed by the water. This is when the guinea worm
emerges from the skin so that it can release its eggs into the water<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">4</span></sup>.
</span><span style="font-family: Calibri;">The cycle repeats when humans ingest
contaminated water. This is why avoiding parasites is not the preferred line of
defense for hosts. </span><span style="font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Fight</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"> Generally, hosts tend to use
the second line of defense more frequently which occurs after an encounter has
been made. A host’s immune system is programmed to recognize “self” and
“non-self” molecules. Every “self” molecule has a specific set of protein on
the surf of the cell that allows lymphocytes to recognize them. Parasites have
different proteins on their surface that alert the lymphocytes that a foreign
body, or antigen, is present. The immune system goes on to produce antibodies
to fight off the infection<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">5</span></sup>. This is one way the host can fight off
an infection. Another way hosts can deal with an infection is to reallocate
resources<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">1</span></sup>. A host may compensate for an infection by shifting their
life cycle to reproduce earlier in life. This is what the crustacean <i>Daphnia magna </i>tends to do when
parasitized by <i>Glugoides intestinalis<span style="font-size: xx-small;">6,7.</span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: Calibri; padding: 0in;"> </span><span style="font-family: Calibri;"> Studies show that infected <i>Daphnia </i>tend to produce up more
offspring in their first clutch than those that were not infected<sup><span style="font-size: xx-small;">6,7</span></sup>.
This may be due to a trade off that lowers reproduction later on in life due to
the infection.<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwKEjvLOHwPt6KlDm6cgV_jxLP9DCc7eUXfy9V2QGdatn58OdlR-NCklQPNL0HyBaUGRzuDQGiejzlHqIWA3N-rwCKBjk21V7JA8ZE4yI8IG6w15AhevlkyOIU-DvSdnyif15e9bL8lZ2C/s1600/Screen+Shot+2014-02-17+at+10.29.55+AM.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwKEjvLOHwPt6KlDm6cgV_jxLP9DCc7eUXfy9V2QGdatn58OdlR-NCklQPNL0HyBaUGRzuDQGiejzlHqIWA3N-rwCKBjk21V7JA8ZE4yI8IG6w15AhevlkyOIU-DvSdnyif15e9bL8lZ2C/s1600/Screen+Shot+2014-02-17+at+10.29.55+AM.png" height="292" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://evolution.unibas.ch/people/dita/old_res/organis.html" target="_blank">Infected <i>Daphni </i>vs uninfected <i>Daphnia</i></a><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> 8</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri;"><span style="color: red; font-size: large;">References</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1.<a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=snippet&q=line%20of%20defense&f=false">http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=snippet&q=line%20of%20defense&f=false</a><u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2. <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/water.html">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/water.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3.</span><span style="color: #0000ee; font-family: Calibri;"><span style="font-size: 15px;"><u><a href="http://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/helminth-intoduction.html">http://parasite.org.au/para-site/contents/helminth-intoduction.html</a></u></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">4. <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/guineaworm/biology.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">5. <a href="http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem/AllPages">http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/understandingcancer/immunesystem/AllPages</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">6. <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1562/505.full">http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/272/1562/505.full</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">7. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2046/">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2046/</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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8. <a href="http://evolution.unibas.ch/people/dita/old_res/organis.html">http://evolution.unibas.ch/people/dita/old_res/organis.html</a></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08983560850683012956noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-23908836310682921032014-02-14T10:19:00.000-05:002014-02-14T10:28:01.259-05:00Pathogenicity and Virulence<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">A Reoccurring Concern</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Spanish Flu, Bird Flu, Pig Flu, Ebola(diseases).
Every so often it seems as if a new disease is going to be the next pandemic,
with the exception of the Spanish flu that proved to be a pandemic. Somehow
many of us survive to face the next one. Conspiracy theorists say the
government is behind it. Though there is possibility that they are right, the
correct answer lies within a deeper understanding of how pathogens function. The
pathogen’s ability to infect and the magnitude of the infection play a
significant role in its success. When a pathogen finds the perfect balance, it
will be very successful.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.invmed.info/historyofinfluenza/images/img_spanish_map.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.invmed.info/historyofinfluenza/images/img_spanish_map.jpg" height="168" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.invmed.info/historyofinfluenza/images/img_spanish_map.jpg [5] </span></div>
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<span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">The Difference </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A pathogen is defined as a
microorganism that causes disease. The pathogen has two important characteristics.
The first is pathogenic character, which is defined as the pathogen’s ability
to cause disease in its host. The second characteristic is virulence, which is defined
as the magnitude at which the disease occurs. Pathogenicity is a quality that
is either on or off. The virulence factor measures the level of pathogenicity. There
are multiple virulence factors, such as attachment, destructive enzymes and
toxins. Virulence factors allow for the pathogen to be more successful within a
limit. To explain, if a pathogen has zero virulence then it is no longer actually
a pathogen by definition because it is not causing disease. On the other hand,
if the virulence factors are too high then the pathogen will be so efficient at
killing its host that it may deplete its reservoir, the host it infects, and no
longer reproduce. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">Chestnuts No More</span></div>
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Chestnut trees(host) were one of the
most utilized trees in <st1:country-region w:st="on">America</st1:country-region>.
It was used for the durability of its bark and the tastiness of its chestnuts.
However, this only lasted up until the 1900.This is when the Chestnut blight took
place. A fungus, <i>Cryphonectria parasitica </i>that originated in China and only infected dying twigs and pieces of bark, was introduced to America around 1893. In the fungus' native region there existed a different kind of chestnut tree which was resistant to the fungus. Once introduced t the American chestnut tree it only took 40 years to wipe out all the chestnut trees in America. <i>Cryphonectria parasitica </i>spread up to 50 miles of chestnut forestry a year. Once the chestnut trees were decimated the fungus' reproduction rate plummeted, without a host to provide the nutrients and a habitat it's reproduction was halted. <span style="background-color: white;"><sup>[2]</sup></span></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/oVrGgW-bBz4?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVrGgW-bBz4 <span style="font-size: xx-small;">[3]</span></div>
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</div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: yellow; font-size: large;">No Need to worry </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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The perfect
balance the pathogen seeks to find can only be successful if they successfully
infect their host. If the pathogen is successful in reaching a balance, there is
a multitude of ways that interaction with a pathogen can be avoided. If
interaction still occurs your body has mechanisms that are in place to deal
with the pathogen. If the mechanisms fail the human population is a genetically
diverse species and a resistant human can exist and survive. The host and pathogen
have an eternal struggle that is an evolutionary arms race. The victory has yet
to be decided.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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References:</div>
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<br /></div>
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[1] <a href="http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-virulence-and-vs-pathogenicity/">http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-virulence-and-vs-pathogenicity/</a></div>
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<br /></div>
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[2] <a href="http://www.forestpathology.org/dis_chestnut.html">http://www.forestpathology.org/dis_chestnut.html</a></div>
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<br /></div>
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[3] <a href="http://www.coloss.org/beebook/II/virus/1/2">http://www.coloss.org/beebook/II/virus/1/2</a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
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[4] <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVrGgW-bBz4">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVrGgW-bBz4</a></div>
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<br /></div>
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[5]<a href="http://www.invmed.info/historyofinfluenza/images/img_spanish_map.jpg">http://www.invmed.info/historyofinfluenza/images/img_spanish_map.jpg</a></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09624115901563682302noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-59547496174092068032014-02-05T02:05:00.004-05:002014-02-05T10:58:16.688-05:00Parasite Manipulation of the Host<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h4>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #cc0000;">Mind Control
Everywhere!</span></span></h4>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Being able to
have mind control seem like a sophisticated power that many would like to have.
In Vampire Diaries, the evil vampire, Damon, is known to use this type of
techniques on others such as Jeremy. You can also find this type of behavior in
cartoons such as SpongeBob Squarepants when Plankton takes over SpongeBob’s
mind to try to get the secret formula for the crabby patty. Unfortunately,
being able to control something or someone’s mind is very unrealistic – but not
for certain parasites. This unique characteristic has given the parasites the
upper hand when it comes to the evolution of parasites vs. host. Getting a host
to do whatever, or go wherever is a necessity in order to get to their next
life cycle. (1)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<br />
<h4>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #cc0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman';">How and Why Does
This Happen?</span></h4>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">When the
parasite has finally encounter the intermediate host and is able to survive the
host immune system, the next step for the parasite is to somehow manage its way
to get to its definitive host. It has been report by Poulin that usually the
intermediate host is not the average meal that the definitive host would eat
which is why this could become tricky for the parasite (2). Thanks to the
product of natural selection, genetic manipulations, which is manipulation of
an organism’s genome that has influenced another organism’s phenotype, is the
reason of how parasites has the advantage over their host. Being capable of
changing its phenotype is also one of the main reasons why parasites modify the
host behavior. There are actually more other reasons to answer why specifically
the parasite changes the host behavior. Another reason, probably the most
obviously, is because it helps the parasite fulfill its life cycle. The last
reason for why the parasite changes the host’s behavior is because it inherited
this specific trait from an ancestor and it is now just embedded in the way it
functions. (3) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/uvdiYg6ZN-U?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #666666; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><br /></span>
<br />
<h4>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #cc0000; font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Zombie Snails</span></h4>
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/fkiL-v4X8w8?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">Snails are one
of the many organisms that are the victim of a parasite that is able to have
mind control over them once infected. This specific parasite that is
responsible is the Leucochloridium worm. This worm is able to get inside the
snails eye stocks and also a result makes the eyes look more like yummy
caterpillars to worms. Most importantly, the Leucochloridium worm takes over
the snail’s brain. The way they are sufficient in doing so is by having the
snail work its way up in plane view site so that predators, in this case birds,
are quickly able to spot the infected snail. This process in the end makes for
a happy parasite family that is now it able to achieve its finally life cycle
in the birds stomach. The way that the cycle is able to start over again is
that the snails eat the infected birds feces. Already you can quickly observe
and apply the reasons to why this particular parasite wanted to have the snail
behave differently. It was capable of changing the snails phenotype which in
return helped it successfully complete its life cycle by being able to enter
into the birds digestive tract and lastly the mind – control is inherited so it
can again go through the same life cycle each time using this trait so that it
can strongly complete the life cycle with little to no problem. (4)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">References</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">(1) <u>The Art
of Being A Parasite</u> by Claude Combes<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">(2) http://www.otago.ac.nz/parasitegroup/PDF%20papers/Poulin2010-ASB.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">(3)http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dKSyEsRTk5kC&oi=fnd&pg=PA243&dq=parasite+manipulation+of+host+behavior&ots=-wyxiQvfeL&sig=oofSlPgZODIaykggdlY9k4KEY5U#v=onepage&q=parasite%20manipulation%20of%20host%20behavior&f=false<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">(4)</span> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Leucochloridium_paradoxum/<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: white;"><br /></span></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09287891697625024789noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-8079400419179161682014-02-03T02:11:00.000-05:002014-02-06T21:33:22.345-05:00Host Encounters<style>
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<span style="background: black; color: red; font-family: "Apple Casual"; font-size: 20.0pt; mso-highlight: black;">Don’t Take the Easy Way Out</span><br />
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">Parasitism is defined as </span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">a
form of symbiosis in which one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense
of another organism<a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Organism" title="Organism"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"></span></a> usually of different species, the
host. The association may also lead to the injury of the host. A parasites life
cycle may involve one host, or it could involve multiple hosts. For each of
these evolutionary lifestyles, there are positives and negatives that affect
the parasite and its overall ability to inhabit, survive, and reproduce within
a definitive host. </span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Parasitism"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">(1)</span></a></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: red; font-family: "Apple Casual"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black;">Sometimes a Challenge is Worth
it</span></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">Parasites that involve more than one host
into their life cycle usually go through a paratenic host. This host is one
that does not usually help the maturation or development of the parasite
itself, but the presence of this host may be an essential key that leads the
inhabiting parasite to its definitive host. <a href="http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=41625"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">(2)</span></a> The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bothriocephalus gregarius, </i>a tapeworm
found in the Turbot, goes through a copepod, and then through a paratenic host
known as the Goby in order to get to its final destination in the Turbot <a href="http://eurekamag.com/research/038/325/importance-of-the-paratenic-host-in-the-biology-of-bothriocephalus-gregarius-cestoda-pseudophyllidea-a-parasite-of-the-turbot.php"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">(3)</span></a>. On the other
hand the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bothriocephalus barbatus</i>,
another tapeworm of the fish known as Brill goes directly from the copepod to
the Brill. One may believe that the shortest path is the best path, but this is
not necessarily true for parasites. The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B.
gregarius</i> showed a higher success rate than the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. barbatus</i>. This could have been possible for many reasons. The
usage of multiple hosts creates diversity for the parasite. Turbot rarely eat
copepods after a young age, so evolution and natural selection have created a
way for the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. gregarius</i> to
infiltrate the Turbot using the Goby which eats copepods, while the<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> B. barbatus </i>only uses the copepod to
infiltrate its host fish, Brill. This gives the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. gregarius</i> more than one option to aid in its survival and
reproduction. Even though the success rate is higher for the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. gregarius </i>because of its use of a
paratenic host, the complexity also has a negative aspect <a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=bothriocephalus+gregarius&source=bl&ots=zEQ9I30Ou0&sig=IGbgHPXOnso-3mDBKJSu2nwbtMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=khPvUsryCubXyAGP1oCoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=bothriocephalus%20gregarius&f=false"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">(6)</span></a>. When
transferring from host to host, the parasite will use more energy. This will
create a higher amount of stress making it harder for it to survive during
transfers. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhf0946p_OYRb8u4a9QcLMAkImunDVC88RRFJPCe9NZ22pMidPhR3Xt3RuOUQOa9qx0zcVE3LQ3EJI_OY3gQqLWSNawmKasBfLg76Tx6yttg1oG1Clvc_QIZivFQBBPcEu3m-dNRJbpQGQ/s1600/Turbot1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhf0946p_OYRb8u4a9QcLMAkImunDVC88RRFJPCe9NZ22pMidPhR3Xt3RuOUQOa9qx0zcVE3LQ3EJI_OY3gQqLWSNawmKasBfLg76Tx6yttg1oG1Clvc_QIZivFQBBPcEu3m-dNRJbpQGQ/s1600/Turbot1.jpg" height="231" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"> http://wcs4.blogspot.com/2012_04_01_archive.html</span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: red; font-family: "Apple Casual"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black;">Maybe Taking the Shorter Route
Would Actually be Easier?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">Or maybe it wouldn’t? For some parasites,
a paratenic host may not be necessary for successful reproduction and life.
Parasites such as entomophagous parasites, which are insects that are parasitic
on other insects, only need the host to do what they need. The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ampulex compressa</i>, also known as the
jewel wasp, uses a single cockroach to lay its eggs into. The eggs hatch from
inside the cockroach, grow, and repeat the process. There is no need for a
paratenic host because these wasps can be completely successful without one </span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://thebestnursingschools.net/info/bizarre-parasitic-life-cycles"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">(5)</span></a></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">. Parasites
like the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B. gregarius </i>need these
paratenic hosts in order to successfully occupy a host. Another example, the <i>Toxocara
leonine, </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">a roundworm, is known to
use smaller animals that become prey to bigger animals as their paratenic
hosts. This once again creates more host options for the parasite </span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://www.newmanveterinary.com/RW-Main.html"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">(4)</span></a></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwtGp-Q4bqB9gduko2BScR6SbSRm1F_hIaLmOFLkdLGgf9wKsMbixbMIfLxoW_XZwwUJ0XEwdObq2C1TVUb73s3tHfnNXFY8j7SJmddMDNUb2ZQRBrR0_plSSkJHUgBKTC5DWrPv96zzc/s1600/Emerald-Cockroach-Wasp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwtGp-Q4bqB9gduko2BScR6SbSRm1F_hIaLmOFLkdLGgf9wKsMbixbMIfLxoW_XZwwUJ0XEwdObq2C1TVUb73s3tHfnNXFY8j7SJmddMDNUb2ZQRBrR0_plSSkJHUgBKTC5DWrPv96zzc/s1600/Emerald-Cockroach-Wasp.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"> http://www.todayifoundout.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Emerald-Cockroach-Wasp.jpg</span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: red; font-family: "Apple Casual"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black;">Final
Deliberation</span></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">The positive
aspects outweigh the negative aspects when it comes to multiple hosts for a
parasite. Even though a parasite may use a little more energy to go from host
to host, the idea of having options to invade is key. The options and
complexity create a greater chance that a definitive host is reached. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/dB0cL3PcYZI?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
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<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;">Links</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(1)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Parasitism"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Parasitism</span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(2)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=41625"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=41625</span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(3)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://eurekamag.com/research/038/325/importance-of-the-paratenic-host-in-the-biology-of-bothriocephalus-gregarius-cestoda-pseudophyllidea-a-parasite-of-the-turbot.php"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://eurekamag.com/research/038/325/importance-of-the-paratenic-host-in-the-biology-of-bothriocephalus-gregarius-cestoda-pseudophyllidea-a-parasite-of-the-turbot.php</span></a>
</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(4)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://www.newmanveterinary.com/RW-Main.html"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://www.newmanveterinary.com/RW-Main.html</span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(5)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://thebestnursingschools.net/info/bizarre-parasitic-life-cycles"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://thebestnursingschools.net/info/bizarre-parasitic-life-cycles</span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="background: black; color: white; mso-bidi-font-family: Cambria; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Cambria; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(6)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="background: black; color: white; mso-highlight: black; mso-themecolor: background1;"><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=bothriocephalus+gregarius&source=bl&ots=zEQ9I30Ou0&sig=IGbgHPXOnso-3mDBKJSu2nwbtMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=khPvUsryCubXyAGP1oCoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw%23v=onepage&q=bothriocephalus%20gregarius&f=false"><span style="color: white; mso-themecolor: background1;">http://books.google.com/books?id=bEtEL2z3hXcC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=bothriocephalus+gregarius&source=bl&ots=zEQ9I30Ou0&sig=IGbgHPXOnso-3mDBKJSu2nwbtMo&hl=en&sa=X&ei=khPvUsryCubXyAGP1oCoBA&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=bothriocephalus%20gregarius&f=false</span></a></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03990608845602266532noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-47353923062117390212014-01-30T22:51:00.000-05:002014-01-30T22:51:01.503-05:00Environment’s Role in Parasitic Relationships<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS</b><br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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There are many parasitic relationships in today’s
environment. This is where a parasite will use an organism to its advantage by
getting proper nutrition or living conditions of some sort from their chosen
host. (<a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/" target="_blank">1</a>) There are many things that could influence how parasites choose their
hosts and gain the proper abilities to do so. One of the major influences is
the environment. Factors caused by the environment can greatly influence the
strengths or weaknesses of a relationship between a parasite and its host. (<a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/12/21/rspb.2010.2359.full" target="_blank">2</a>) Some
of these environmental factors include, but are not limited to, the temperature
and altering an organism’s habitat. (<a href="http://parasitology.msi.ucsb.edu/pubs/Lafferty_Kuris_05_Thomas.pdf" target="_blank">3</a>)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b>POSITIVE INFLUENCE</b><br />
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Environmental factors can greatly strengthen the
relationship between a parasite and its host. For example, whenever temperature
increases in the habitat of a host and parasite, hosts can obtain the ability
to have a greater amount of offspring. This being said, warmer temperatures are
expected to yield a stronger presence of parasitic relationships, because that will
increas the amount of susceptible hosts for the parasites. (<a href="http://www.cidd.psu.edu/research/synopses/parasites-and-climate-change" target="_blank">4</a>) As well as this,
there are some parasites that survive better in the warmer temperatures, thus
making them a bit stronger. For the malaria parasite, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Plasmodium falciparum</i>, temperature plays one of the biggest roles
in its development. As well as the proper amount of rainfall, warm climates are
crucial in order for the mosquitoes, the intermediate host of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">P. falciparum</i>, to survive. This being
said, mosquitoes are less likely to bite in colder temperatures, thus
inhibiting the spread <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">P. falciparum</i>.
(<a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130218/srep01300/full/srep01300.html" target="_blank">5</a>)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/YNoRqDYFjy0?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
Mosquitoes less likely to bite in cold temperatures (<a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x14tju7_mosquitoes-less-likely-to-bite-in-cold-temperatures_news" target="_blank">6</a>)</div>
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<b>NEGATIVE INFLUENCE</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Not only can the environment have a positive influence on
the relationship between the host and the parasite, but also it could affect it
negatively and create a disturbance or stress for the organisms. (<a href="http://parasitology.msi.ucsb.edu/pubs/Lafferty_Kuris_05_Thomas.pdf" target="_blank">3</a>) For
example, humans can alter organisms’ habitat by converting a forest to something
like an amusement park. This changes the environment completely for the
organisms that once occupied that space, and thus creates a stressor among
them. This causes the relationship between any kind of host and parasite to
weaken, which might ultimately lead to the parasite’s life coming to an end. In
this instance, the parasite is more affected by the environmental disturbance
than the host. However, in other cases,
different hosts in a single environment may start dying rapidly thus causing
the parasites to eventually be removed from the population as well. (<a href="http://parasitology.msi.ucsb.edu/pubs/Lafferty_Kuris_05_Thomas.pdf" target="_blank">3</a>) The
malaria virus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">P. falciparum</i>, could
also be used as an example to describe how the environment can influence a
parasite negatively. Whereas warmer temperatures aid in strengthening the
relationship between <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">P. falciparum</i>
and its mosquito host, the colder temperatures weaken it. Another species with
similar results is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Daphnia longispina</i>
and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Caullerya mesnili</i> parasite.
An experiment was conducted that resulted in more <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">D. longispina</i> species being infected with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. mesnili</i> in 12°C
rather than at 20°C. (<a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/08/06/rsbl.2010.0616.full" target="_blank">7</a>) This being said, warmer temperatures have an opposite
affect on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">C. mesnili</i> than how it
affected the malaria parasite. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoIDvos4gYjQgoY_CKqy-I8sK-vjr_c_Kv8HJj3mMv-VMMqNVkbret6H6evN9677Q4XX2dIm23oVhhKGrjoq21JxFNORjrbI3Xi7tmi1Jn03lXwaxVPYj-X2pZVU8bk_NBEMs3gTLpc-A3/s1600/D.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoIDvos4gYjQgoY_CKqy-I8sK-vjr_c_Kv8HJj3mMv-VMMqNVkbret6H6evN9677Q4XX2dIm23oVhhKGrjoq21JxFNORjrbI3Xi7tmi1Jn03lXwaxVPYj-X2pZVU8bk_NBEMs3gTLpc-A3/s1600/D.png" height="200" width="320" /></a></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<i>Daphnia longispina </i>(<a href="http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artmar02/fleanatomy.html" target="_blank">8</a>)</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
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<b>WHY
DOES IT MATTER?</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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The
environment can affect parasitic relationships in many different ways. For
example, colder temperatures have a different affect on different types of
organisms. This explains why some species can only survive in certain places
around the world. This also suggests
that the environment has a lot to do with the selection of hosts among
different parasites (<a href="http://www.academia.edu/4922380/Environment_can_alter_selection_in_host-parasite_interactions" target="_blank">9</a>). Environmental
factors can also take a role in the explanation of why some parasitic
relationships are not strong in areas that would be expected. This could occur
in places where an organism’s habitat has been altered.</div>
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<b>SOURCES</b><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(1)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(2)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/12/21/rspb.2010.2359.full" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/12/21/rspb.2010.2359.full</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(3)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://parasitology.msi.ucsb.edu/pubs/Lafferty_Kuris_05_Thomas.pdf" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://parasitology.msi.ucsb.edu/pubs/Lafferty_Kuris_05_Thomas.pdf</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(4)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.cidd.psu.edu/research/synopses/parasites-and-climate-change" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.cidd.psu.edu/research/synopses/parasites-and-climate-change</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(5)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130218/srep01300/full/srep01300.html" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.nature.com/srep/2013/130218/srep01300/full/srep01300.html</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(6)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x14tju7_mosquitoes-less-likely-to-bite-in-cold-temperatures_news" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x14tju7_mosquitoes-less-likely-to-bite-in-cold- temperatures_news</a><br /><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(7)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/08/06/rsbl.2010.0616.full" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/08/06/rsbl.2010.0616.full</a><br />
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<!--EndFragment--><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(8)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artmar02/fleanatomy.html" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artmar02/fleanatomy.html</a><br />
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<span style="text-indent: -0.25in;">(9)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><a href="http://www.academia.edu/4922380/Environment_can_alter_selection_in_host-parasite_interactions" style="text-indent: -0.25in;">http://www.academia.edu/4922380/Environment_can_alter_selection_in_host-parasite_interactions</a></div>
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Hannah Brindleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00400460117492849701noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-22596261590489378612014-01-27T22:53:00.003-05:002014-01-29T01:11:36.291-05:00Pre-Adaptive Characteristics <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /><i><b><span style="color: red;">
Parasitic vs. Free Living Worms</span></b></i></span><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
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<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: white;">A
parasite is an organism that grows, feeds, and
is sheltered on or in a different organism while contributing nothing to the
survival of its<span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span>h</span></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: white;">ost<sup> 1</sup>. </span><span style="color: white; font-size: x-small;"> </span><span style="color: white;">I</span><span style="color: white;">n fact, a parasite is only successful if it has a
high reproduction rate as well as finding a host that it ca</span></span><span style="color: white; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">n live off of for a
long period of time. Phylum Nematoda and Platyhelminthes both contain parasitic
and free-living species. From the pre-adaptive traits of the species in each of
these Phyla, it is clear that a parasitic species is more successful. </span></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: red; font-size: large;"><i><b>Free-Living Species</b></i></span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"> Free-living species are considered to not be dependent on another
organism to survive. In phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Turbellaria (flatworms)
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disadvantage to the flatworm because it is not protected inside a host as a
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Pseudoceros dimidiatus</i><sup>11</sup></span><br />
<a href="http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~bu6/flat0446.html" style="font-size: medium; text-align: start; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~bu6/flat0446.html</span></a></div>
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<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i><b><span style="background-color: black; color: red; font-size: large;">Parasitic Species</span></b></i></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times;"><span style="color: white;">A
parasitic lifestyle has a few traits that are extremely beneficial for them.
These include their surface to volume ratio that allows them to have more
options to a wider range of hosts, the mobility to find their hosts, the
ability to use their resources efficiently, possibly being hermaphroditic, a
low metabolism, a shorter generation time, a higher mutation rate, higher
fecundity, and the ability to penetrate.</span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times;"><span style="color: white;">An
example would be Phylum Platyhelminthes that contains flatworms that are
acoelomate, triploblastic (three embryonic cell layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm), and bilaterally symmetrical<sup>4</sup>. These flatworms have a
digestive cavity of only one opening and do not have a circulatory system. Out
of the four Classes in the Phylum, Monogenea, Trematoda and Cestoda are
parasitic. </span></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/images/images09/fig029.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/images/images09/fig029.jpg" height="307" width="400" /></span></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Relationships among parasitic Platyhelminthes<sup>12</sup></span><sup><o:p></o:p></sup></div>
<!--EndFragment--><span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: black; color: white; font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/phylogeny_and_adaptive_radiation03.php">http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/phylogeny_and_adaptive_radiation03.php</a></span><br />
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<span style="background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><i><span style="background-color: black; color: red; font-size: large;">Both Parasitic and Free-Living Species</span></i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">Phylum Nematoda contains species that can affect humans both directly
and indirectly through domestic animals, and also free-living species that can
be decomposers and predators on microorganisms</span><sup style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">3</sup><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">. Although there are
two types, both species contain similar characteristics that make them
parasitic and overall more successful. Just like Phylum Platyhelminthes, the
characteristics that make Nematodes special include having a triploblastic and
bilateral symmetrical body that is covered with a secreted, flexible,
non-living cuticle, and muscles that run longitudinally in the body wall</span><sup style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">5</sup><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">. Nematodes also lack features such as cilia and a well-defined head</span><sup style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">6</sup><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">. The sizes of most of the species in this phylum are under 5 cm long, while
others can be microscopic</span><sup style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">5</sup><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">. Parasitic Nematodes, on the other hand,
can be as long as 1 meter. Their bodies are long and narrow and have an
epidermis that is made of mass of cellular material and nuclei without separate
membranes</span><sup style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">7</sup><span style="background-color: black; color: white; text-indent: 48pt;">. Moreover, parasitic nematodes have more than one host to
distribute themselves and finish their lifecycle. </span></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times;"><span style="color: white;"><i><br /></i></span></span>
<span style="background-color: black; font-family: Times;"><span style="color: white;"><i>Caenorhabditis elegans </i>(<i>C. elegans</i>)<i> </i>is a prime
example of a free-living roundworm that primarily lives in soil where it can
feed off bacteria and fungi. Advantages to this free-living nematode include
its microscopic size, ease of propagation, compact genome, short life cycle,
and high fecundity rate<sup>2</sup>. <i>C. elegans</i>, like the other
nematodes, has an unsegmented, cylindrical body shape that is tapered at the
end<sup>2</sup>. These roundworms contain hermaphrodites and male worms. These
characteristics thus make <i>C.elegans</i> more successful than typical
free-living species.</span></span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/zjqLwPgLnV0?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjqLwPgLnV0"><span style="color: white; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjqLwPgLnV0</span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><u>Sources</u></span></b><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666;"><br /></span></span><br />
<ol>
<li><a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/parasite"><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.thefreedictionary.com/parasite </span></a></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black;"><a href="http://www.wormatlas.org/ver1/handbook/anatomyintro/anatomyintro.htm"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.wormatlas.org/ver1/handbook/anatomyintro/anatomyintro.htm </span></a></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Nematoda/">http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Nematoda/</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.infusion.allconet.org/webquest/PhylumPlatyhelminthes.html">http://www.infusion.allconet.org/webquest/PhylumPlatyhelminthes.html</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.reefed.edu.au/home/explorer/animals/marine_invertebrates/nematode_worms">http://www.reefed.edu.au/home/explorer/animals/marine_invertebrates/nematode_worms</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/turbellarians-planarians-free-living-flatworms">http://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/turbellarians-planarians-free-living-flatworms</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/nematoda.html">http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/nematoda.html</a> </span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjqLwPgLnV0"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjqLwPgLnV0</span></a></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://oceana.org/en/explore/marine-wildlife/divided-flatworm">http://oceana.org/en/explore/marine-wildlife/divided-flatworm</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-size: 7pt;"> </span></span><span style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/what-are-the-differences-between-flatworms-roundworms-and-segmented-worms-6865/">http://www.sciences360.com/index.php/what-are-the-differences-between-flatworms-roundworms-and-segmented-worms-6865/</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~bu6/flat0446.html"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~bu6/flat0446.html</span></a></span></li>
<li><span style="background-color: black; text-indent: -0.25in;"><a href="http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/phylogeny_and_adaptive_radiation03.php"><span style="color: #666666; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">http://www.eplantscience.com/index/general_zoology/phylogeny_and_adaptive_radiation03.php</span></a></span></li>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11655068307918944867noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-37973054581648705862014-01-25T19:05:00.000-05:002014-04-07T16:18:54.877-04:00What's Mine is Yours & Yours Is Mine. <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span id="docs-internal-guid-5d20d195-c164-a9ac-8f6a-c274190c6b28"></span><br /></span>
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<span id="docs-internal-guid-5d20d195-c164-a9ac-8f6a-c274190c6b28"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 40px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Exchange of Genetic Material</span></span></h2>
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<span id="docs-internal-guid-5d20d195-c164-a9ac-8f6a-c274190c6b28"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Give and Take</span></span></h3>
<span id="docs-internal-guid-5d20d195-c164-a9ac-8f6a-c274190c6b28" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">When a parasitic relationship takes place, the parasite essentially becomes a part of the host. Though we typically think of parasites as organisms that steal nutrients from the host and give nothing in return, they sometimes share something valuable with their host. Though not common, parasites can exchange genetic information with their host, integrating their genes and forming a recombinant genome. This can be thought of as a form of horizontal gene transfer, where genes are exchanged between lineages (non-sexually) rather than within a lineage (sexually).</span><span style="font-size: 9px; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/11/1769.full">1</a></span><span style="font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>How Does This Happen?</b></span></h3>
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<span style="color: #e06666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><u>TRANSPOSONS</u></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.espacegraphique.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/aquarelle-rafflesia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://www.espacegraphique.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/aquarelle-rafflesia.jpg" height="320" width="232" /></a></td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Rafflesia cantleyi</span></i><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> (red flower) attached to it's </span><span style="font-size: xx-small;">host </span></div>
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<i style="font-size: x-small;">Tetrastigma rafflesiae. </i><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://www.espacegraphique.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/aquarelle-rafflesia.jpg">[9]</a></span></div>
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<b id="docs-internal-guid--9a7cb91-c650-64d1-c765-2b70aa995a3c" style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Within a DNA sequence there are transposable elements, which move segments of nucleic information elsewhere.These "jumping genes" can be a type of transposons called class 2 transposons. Type 2 transposons use a “cut and paste” function so that they can “cut” a transposon out from their genome and then “paste” themselves into a target area, which could be either in a different segment of their own genome or a different genome altogether.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html">2</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> An example of this can be seen between the parasitic plant </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rafflesia cantleyi </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">and it's host </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Tetrastigma rafflesiae. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Researches have found that </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">R. cantleyi</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> has been retrieving genetic information from it's host to either gain nutrients more efficiently or to bypass the host's immune response to it.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 9px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120608100846.htm">3</a> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By taking advantage of transposons and integrating the two different genomes, parasitic </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">R. cantleyi</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> is able to improve its fitness and gives itself an edge over it's host. </span></b><br />
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<span style="color: #e06666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><u>RETROTRANSPOSONS</u></span><br />
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<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/odRyv7V8LAE?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<b id="docs-internal-guid--9a7cb91-c650-132f-13ad-6f3696d11dc5" style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Transposable elements can also act as class 1 retrotransposons and use RNA as an intermediate between the two different genomes.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2006_12/Page2.htm">4</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> An important parasite-host relationship that exploits the use of retrotransposons is the the HIV-human relationship. Human immunodeficiency virus is a retrovirus that uses RNA, reverse transcriptase, and integrase to fuse it’s own genetic information with the DNA of human cells. Once recombination occurs, the host's behavior is changed since it's own immune system begins to attack the infected cells, which are actually the body's immune cells. As the body attacks this hybrid of "host-parasite" cell, it also creates more immune cells, which HIV is patiently waiting to infect. This interaction allows HIV, the parasite, to continually infect other cells and create more copies of itself. This, in turn, increases HIV’s “fitness” due to an increase in reproductive success. </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #e06666; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b><u>BACTERIOPHAGES</u></b></span><span style="font-size: 15px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span></span><br />
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<b id="docs-internal-guid--9a7cb91-c651-be6c-39e2-733fb305db40" style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Parasites do not only exchange genetic information with their host, but also other symbiotic parasites that live in the same host. An example of this can be seen between different types of bacteria who take advantage of bacteriophages to integrate unique genetic information with one another.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.yale.edu/turner/pdf/p019.pdf">5</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Bacteriophages help exchange DNA from bacteria such as, </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Staphylococcus aureus</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, to other cells to either continually reproduce the genetic information (lytic cycle) or to propagate its genetic information within its host species (lysogenic cycle).</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05354.x/pdf">6</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This recombination in the new parasitic cells can ultimately lead to resistance and increased efficiency in reproduction for the parasite. </span></b><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/8cBDdOzJwZsmLX_kT9FAKHQ3tS6L_a9rJrgXNlK2dg4ib-UEbI4iOw3t9N1jRfDz9cBTFmOqmO4VCrJsnRzWdB829vKX6iVbhdbAcXXgQUjHO2jA8uynOZ9pvQ" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="242" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/8cBDdOzJwZsmLX_kT9FAKHQ3tS6L_a9rJrgXNlK2dg4ib-UEbI4iOw3t9N1jRfDz9cBTFmOqmO4VCrJsnRzWdB829vKX6iVbhdbAcXXgQUjHO2jA8uynOZ9pvQ" style="border: 0px solid transparent;" width="400" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">The lytic and lysogenic cycle of bacteriophages which transfers genetic information from cell to cell. [10]</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Why does it happen?</span></h3>
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<b id="docs-internal-guid--9a7cb91-c651-7efd-a0e9-cc5f8d9545f7" style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In many parasite-host relationship, an adaptive strategy made by either organism is done to improve fitness or to become a more efficient organism. When a parasite either gains or gives genetic information with it’s host, it is contributing in this exchange so that it has a more favorable environment and conditions to reproduce. The gene a parasite gives to its host could be one of antibiotic resistance, so that if the host tries to treat itself, it will prove ineffective. Likewise, a parasite could gain genetic information that prevents the host immune system from attacking it.</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10px; font-weight: bold; vertical-align: super; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://io9.com/5917214/parasitic-plants-actually-steal-the-genes-of-their-hosts">7</a></span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Exchange of genetic information becomes an evolutionary tactic for the parasite to survive and to produce future generations. The parasite takes advantage of horizontal gene transfer in order to improve vertical gene transfer, and ultimately gives the parasite a more favorable opportunity to thrust its genes into the next generation. </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">SOURCES</span></div>
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<li><span style="color: #1155cc; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1.15; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/11/1769.full">http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/11/1769.full</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small; line-height: 1.15; text-decoration: none; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html">http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html</a></span></li>
<li><u style="color: #0000ee; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 17px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120608100846.htm">http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/06/120608100846.htm</a></span></u></li>
<li><span style="color: #1155cc; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1.15; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2006_12/Page2.htm">http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2006_12/Page2.htm</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1.15; text-decoration: none; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://www.yale.edu/turner/pdf/p019.pdf">http://www.yale.edu/turner/pdf/p019.pdf</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05354.x/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05354.x/pdf</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1.15; text-decoration: none; white-space: pre-wrap;"><a href="http://io9.com/5917214/parasitic-plants-actually-steal-the-genes-of-their-hosts">http://io9.com/5917214/parasitic-plants-actually-steal-the-genes-of-their-hosts</a></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://users.rcn/com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html">http://users.rcn/com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Transposons.html</a> </span></li>
<li><a href="http://www.espacegraphique.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/aquarelle-rafflesia.jpg"><span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.espacegraphique.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/aquarelle-rafflesia.jpg</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap13/img012.jpg"><span style="font-size: x-small;">http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap13/img012.jpg</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odRyv7V8LAE"><span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odRyv7V8LAE</span></a></li>
</ol>
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</ol>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13324625239916253558noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-25202002022131544882012-04-28T23:58:00.000-04:002012-04-28T23:58:25.797-04:00Mutualism: Women and L. acidophilus<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><u><b>Introduction: </b></u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEC8z1qepNe9lhQRAgcpJeX6QxJloze6Ng4Kcrno_8Z1pY2rXA7zBkLyHVrQjr2G832lqs5SiQoYlZl73wdZ00Gc01Lhdu8GTY3W6vsNQ5ObhMyGLz12npvhPXUFdQ-o3Np1SssdiNnEQk/s1600/clown.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></span></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie-AIAmftXJLOJD7U_79zAlrGfKYXslqYUUBY_odPzvG4Qx4QRQf1ng5-u0gbDtMCeooQyoTT_aPsMIt14yC3ZpRPXxSldUbgAdNI7Z7_OUYFzWF8Y3diGXd5rWQAQptNp4AAcCCGgGQAD/s1600/clownin.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="209" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie-AIAmftXJLOJD7U_79zAlrGfKYXslqYUUBY_odPzvG4Qx4QRQf1ng5-u0gbDtMCeooQyoTT_aPsMIt14yC3ZpRPXxSldUbgAdNI7Z7_OUYFzWF8Y3diGXd5rWQAQptNp4AAcCCGgGQAD/s320/clownin.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">As human beings, we have thousands of different species of bacteria on our bodies, not including the other types of microorganisms. With all the different bacterial species, it would seem that no single bacteria is an indispensable member of our microbiome, however this is not the case. <i>Lactobacillus acidophilus</i> is a species of bacteria that women rely on just as much as the bacteria do. The <i>L. acidophilus</i> reside (among other places in the body) on the human vagina and use the woman as a resource host in exchange for protection from other potentially more harmful micro-organisms.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><u><b>Description of the Relationship:</b></u></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEC8z1qepNe9lhQRAgcpJeX6QxJloze6Ng4Kcrno_8Z1pY2rXA7zBkLyHVrQjr2G832lqs5SiQoYlZl73wdZ00Gc01Lhdu8GTY3W6vsNQ5ObhMyGLz12npvhPXUFdQ-o3Np1SssdiNnEQk/s1600/clown.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEC8z1qepNe9lhQRAgcpJeX6QxJloze6Ng4Kcrno_8Z1pY2rXA7zBkLyHVrQjr2G832lqs5SiQoYlZl73wdZ00Gc01Lhdu8GTY3W6vsNQ5ObhMyGLz12npvhPXUFdQ-o3Np1SssdiNnEQk/s320/clown.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The presence of bacteria on the vagina was discovered over 100 years ago and is now one of the most well known examples of mutualism between humans and bacteria that there is. It is considered mutualistic because both the woman and the bacteria necessarily rely on one another. The <i>L. acidophilus</i>, once introduced to the vagina, begins to adhere to the vaginal epithelial cells and colonize. The bacterial colony consumes the natural sugars excreted by the skin and ferments them into lactic acid. This product lowers the pH to a level intolerable by most bacteria not of the <i>Lactobacillus</i> genus. During menstruation, many of the bacteria are killed, reducing them to an appropriate level.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><u>Cost/Benefit Analysis:</u></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/zJC5738poZE?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The woman benefits from this mutualistic relationship by gaining protection from more harmful organisms that could potential cause a yeast, bladder, or urinary tract infection. This is at the cost of a slight decrease in reproductive fitness. <i>L. acidophilus</i> taking glucose molecules that the woman worked to obtain might not have a large negative affect on the woman by itself, but there are thousands of micro-organisms on and inside the human body that all contribute to a somewhat heavy, yet necessary burden. The bacteria (<i>L. acidophilus</i>) benefit from the relationship by gaining a steady food supply, and a habitable living place. This is at the cost a attack by the woman's defense system (daily hygiene, monthly menstruation, and immune response if levels get too high)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">References:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><br />
<br />
<ol>
<li><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">"Lactobacillus acidophilus" University of Maryland Medical Center. <a href="http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/lactobacillus-acidophilus-000310.htm">http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/lactobacillus-acidophilus-000310.htm</a></span></li>
<li>"Methods for Quantitative and Qualitative Evaluation of Vaginal Microflora During Menstruation" Pub Med Central. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC238869/?tool=pmcentrez">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC238869/?tool=pmcentrez</a>
</li>
<li>"Bacteria Genomes - LACTOBACILLUS ACIDOPHILUS" EMBL-EBI. <a href="http://www.ebi.ac.uk/2can/genomes/bacteria/Lactobacillus_acidophilus.html">http://www.ebi.ac.uk/2can/genomes/bacteria/Lactobacillus_acidophilus.html</a>
</li>
<li>"Bugs Inside: What Happens When the Microbes That Keep Us Healthy Dissapear?" Scientific American. <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=human-microbiome-change">http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=human-microbiome-change</a>
</li>
<li><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJC5738poZE">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJC5738poZE</a>
</li>
</ol>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4490037155917753470.post-43957139133697425802012-04-27T22:41:00.000-04:002012-04-30T05:39:26.391-04:00Orchids and Orchid mycorrhiza<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_806138619"><img border="0" height="193" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid14S4g6bQ3pfSs96UKqMst-C0_peZO2ZOYhQZ9shiwwsmmXQ7USD2AVlvv6ug4dYh-Mt1pF8sdFDOvrMtuyHLZM_FcFFZWGF1hve1a4IhfdbqMvg07CQYEkKdd8mpOJPd-lwhUMYAFaw/s200/Wholesale-Cymbidium-Orchids.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.wholeblossoms.com/9-wholesale-orchids.html">[6]</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Introduction</span></u></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Orchids are widely distributed across
the world with<span style="background-color: black;"> 25,000 to 35,000
species </span>except for Antarctica <sup>[1]</sup>. Orchid’s lifecyle begins after pollination
with the shivering of its petal and sepals. Then, it begins to form a seed; The
maturation period of the seed is unique to each orchid species. Next, the seed germinates into a seedling
resulting in the flowering of orchid and the process begins again. Since orchids’ seeds lack endosperm, they use
resources from fungus to complete the germination process <sup>[2]</sup>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Description of the Relationship<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe-huLrauk1ODBA92OI2VdvkgLWM-DY3d2mcPT5tMRlMS-2A6aMAahTzxLZplo6hqFKygsNaOGbTKy9yndHqTtzeyU0Dzqt__nXXYPFgxNhk2wreVSjHjkSDyCiFPBvLC7X0e8Z4XuvlA/s1600/orchid+fungus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhe-huLrauk1ODBA92OI2VdvkgLWM-DY3d2mcPT5tMRlMS-2A6aMAahTzxLZplo6hqFKygsNaOGbTKy9yndHqTtzeyU0Dzqt__nXXYPFgxNhk2wreVSjHjkSDyCiFPBvLC7X0e8Z4XuvlA/s200/orchid+fungus.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 12px; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: black;">Intracellular hyphal peloton <a href="http://www.ibot.cas.cz/mykosym/mycorrhiza.html">[7]</a></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Basidiomycetes
fungi provide energy and nutrients to orchids, from family</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orchidaceae. The fungi in the orchid mycorrhiza fulfill
the role of endosperm in orchid seed <sup>[3]</sup>. During
the non-photosythentic phase of the orchid’s lifecycle, the fungi provide the
orchid with energy and carbon compounds <sup>[4]</sup>. After the non-photosynthetic phase, the fungi
can also increase the nutrients and mineral intake of the orchid through the
roots. The fungi form pelotons that are
like the host cell. These pelotons are surrounded by a membrane similar to
plasma membrane. An infect orchid has altered microtubules and cell wall
microfibrils <sup>[3]</sup>. All these
alterations caused by the fungi help the orchid to absorb inorganic nutrients
and trace elements from the soil. The
fungi also benefits from these interactions by receiving some of the
photosynthesized carbohydrates <sup>[5]</sup>. Thus, the relationship between
orchid and orchid mycorrhiza is mutualistic.
Some orchid mycorrhiza have evolved to be specific based on the species
of the orchid therefore, can serve to be pathogenic to other orchid species <sup>[3]</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Cost and Benefit
Analysis<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> As stated above, both the orchid and
fungi benefit from this relationship.
The fungi gains carbohydrates from the orchid while the orchid receives nutrients
and energy. </span></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/bq1bTduTzC0?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bq1bTduTzC0&feature=related">[9]</a></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">The orchid does not spend a
lot of energy in developing its roots in order to increase its volume of
nutrients and minerals absorption from the soil. Instead, the fungi fulfill that role. The fungi are not limited to the roots alone. They can explore other cavities and compounds
that are not near the roots<sup>[5]</sup>.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Even though fungal infection can be
pathogenic to the orchid, the orchid is able to control the infection. The orchid has defense genes and compounds
such as orchinol that can control the fungal infection<sup> [3]</sup>. These defense mechanisms does not significantly
affect the reproductive success of the fungus.<span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">References</span></u></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="background-color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="background-color: black;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://www.orchids.co.in/plant-facts/geographical-distribution-ecology.shtm" target="_blank">http://www.orchids.co.in/plant-facts/geographical-distribution-ecology.shtm</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]
<a href="http://www.landscape-and-garden.com/orchids/life-cycle.aspx">http://www.landscape-and-garden.com/orchids/life-cycle.aspx</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]
<a href="http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05012002-091107/unrestricted/Chpt1.pdf">http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05012002-091107/unrestricted/Chpt1.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]
<a href="http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/mycorrhizas/orchid.html">http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/mycorrhizas/orchid.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]
<a href="http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/mycorrhiza.html">http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/mycorrhiza.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]
<a href="http://www.wholeblossoms.com/9-wholesale-orchids.html">http://www.wholeblossoms.com/9-wholesale-orchids.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]
<a href="http://www.ibot.cas.cz/mykosym/mycorrhiza.html">http://www.ibot.cas.cz/mykosym/mycorrhiza.html</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCk5bz4kuAE">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCk5bz4kuAE</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]
<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bq1bTduTzC0&feature=related">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bq1bTduTzC0&feature=related</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1